Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411117EnglishN2019September9HealthcareSynovial Fluid Analysis - A Retrospective Study in a Tertiary Care Centre
English0105KarthikeyanEnglish M. SrideviEnglishIntroduction: Synovial fluid is a thick, stringy fluid found in the cavity of synovial joint.Its main function is to reduce the friction between two joints. Synovial fluid is made up of hyaluronic acid, lubricants and collagen. In a healthy joint the normal volume of synovial fluid is 0.15mlto 0.5ml. This study was done with the objective to evaluate the characteristics of the synovial fluid in various joint diseases.
Method: The study was done in 60 cases of arthritis. Synovial fluid was collected and sent for physical and cytological analysis.
Result: Out of 60 cases, rheumatoid arthritis (n=13; 19%) is the most common etiology followed by septic arthritis (n=10; 17%). Male predominated over female. Inflammatory arthritis is predominant than non-inflammatory and septic arthritis in this study.
Conclusion: The synovial fluid analysis used for the investigation procedure in the diagnosis of various joint diseases. This study shows that rheumatoid arthritis is the most common cause for synovial inflammation.
EnglishArthritis, Joint diseases, Rheumatoid, Synovial fluidINTRODUCTION
Synovial fluid analysis has been recommended as a routine procedure for the diagnosis of various joint diseases. Synovial fluid is normally found in bone joints. The main function of synovial fluid includes reduction of friction, shock absorption, nutrients and water transportation.
Arthritis can be either a monoarticular or polyarticular lesion leading to morbidity, affecting all ages and both sexes. Rheumatoid Arthritis is inflammatory arthritis which is the main cause for the inflammation of synovium. This inflammation results in joint pain and stiffness and if it progresses it will lead to joint damage and permanent loss of function1. Inflammation can be easily detected by doing a simple examination. At the time of presentation, mostly radiography shows normal finding but MRI and Ultrasound are highly sensitive to the smaller lesions and synovial inflammation2. Both synovial fluid analysis and synovial biopsy are advised routinely in cases of the joint diseases.
Ropes and Bauer was the first among to distinguish the appearance and cell content of abnormal synovial fluid and related to different disease categories, in particular, distinguishing inflammatory and non- inflammatory forms of arthritis 3.
Inflammatory arthritis
Inflammatory arthritis is characterized by inflammation of the joints and tissues. This includes Rheumatoid, Gout, and Tuberculous arthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease where some research suggests that genetics plays an important role. Symptoms of inflammatory arthritis are pain, swelling, warmth and tenderness.
Non- inflammatory arthritis
Even though it is called non-inflammatory arthritis, it can still result in some inflammation of the joint. This includes osteoarthritis, Haemarthrosis etc. It is mainly due to the breakdown of joint cartilage and it is not an autoimmune disease.
Material and methods
This study was done in Saveetha Medical College, Thandalam in 60 patients having joint pathogenesis visiting our Outpatient department. The period of study was from July 2018 to December 2018. The patients were completely examined and a clear history was taken. Symptoms like morning stiffness, frequency and periodicity of the episode with characteristic waxing and anorexia, asthenia, cough were important constitutional enquiries made in cases where systemic diseases were suspected. A special effort was made to probe and find out any history suggestive of non-inflammatory osteoarthritis, chronic infection and inflammation like tuberculosis, rheumatoid arthritis and gout and severe inflammation like septic arthritis.
After complete examination they are subjected to synovial fluid analysis and in some synovial biopsy. Before doing the biopsy a small amount of fluid were collected for the analysis and the fluid was sent for the:
Physical analysis Biochemical analysis
Clinical pathology and Cytology
The physical analysis includes color, appearance and volume. Biochemical analysis includes glucose levels and protein levels in synovial fluid. Cytology includes the total leukocyte count and differential count from the centrifuged deposit to see the predominant white blood cells(WBCs).
Arthrocentesis
Arthrocentesis is a surgical procedure done to aspirate the synovial fluid from the affected joints. Full aseptic surgical care was taken in the local preparation, the draping of the patient and scrubbing by the surgeon. About 2 ml of 2% lignocaine was injected into the skin, subcutaneous tissue and joint capsule. The knee was kept in extension; the synovial fluid was displaced from supra patella pouch to the medial or lateral aspect of the patella. After infiltration of the joint capsule, the needle was introduced through a point on lateral aspect 2 cm above and 2 cm lateral to the midpoint of the upper border of patella into the joint cavity and synovial fluid aspirated and collected in test tubes [4]. The needle was taken out leaving the cannula. A 20 ml of syringe has already been fitted with a notched needle is inserted through the mouth of the cannula so that the blunt end of the needle can easily enters the synovial cavity. Strong suction was then applied to the barrel and few ml of synovial fluid is collected. The suction was maintained to hold the synovial specimen within the notch. The syringe and the inner needle were held motionless in the right hand where left hand slowly advanced the outer cannula using a slight twisting and rotating motion for about 1 cm to ensure that specimen has been severed and held in the notch. After aspiration, the needle is removed by leaving the cannula behind.4 Using another needle a piece of tissue is taken and then transferred it to the formalin and sent for histopathology analysis.
Results
This study was performed in Saveetha Medical College. The total number of cases chosen for the study is 60 of which 51 cases were specific arthritis whereas 9 cases were non- specific arthritis.
Table1 shows the age pattern in different joint diseases. According to our study Rheumatoid arthritis was found between the age group of 31-50 and above 50 predominantly. Tubercular arthritis was found mainly in the younger age group between 11-30 years. Septic arthritis, Osteoarthritis and Gout were more common in age group between 31-50 years.
Sex distribution of diseases as given in Table 2, shows male predominant over femalein this study whereas in haemarthrosis females were more affected than male.
Number of cases and their percentagesaregiven in Table 3. Our study indicates that rheumatoid arthritis (19%) and septic arthritis (17%) are more common than Osteoarthritis, tuberculosis arthritis and gout. Traumatic arthritis, haemarthrosis and other non- specific arthritis were least common in our study.
Physical properties of synovial fluid in different diseases showed turbid appearance except for gout in which it showed clear appearance. Amount of volume varied from 3ml to 30ml. Pale yellow and yellowish colour was the most predominant colour of the synovial fluid in most of the diseases whereas reddish colour was seen in cases of haemarthrosis, traumatic and rheumatoid arthritis.
Cytological study of synovial fluid shows differential cell count and predominant cell in disease condition in Table 4.There is increased count of WBC cells in rheumatoid arthritis (7000-15000) and gout (7000-13500 cells/ cu.mm). Polymorphic cells were more predominantly seen in rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic arthritis, Septic arthritis, osteoarthritis, whereas lymphocytes were predominantly seen in tuberculous arthritis and haemarthrosis.
Discussion
Synovial fluid analysis has been routinely recommended for the evaluation of arthritis with joint effusions. [5] Robes and Bauer were the first to categorize and distinguish inflammatory from non- inflammatory forms of arthritis based on the appearance and cell content of the synovial fluid3. Hollander and McCarty were the first to introduce polarized light microscopy of synovial fluid to identify Urate and Pyrophosphate crystals in the definitive diagnosis of gout and pseudo gout.6
According to the study done by Ganesh et al the most commonly affected age group was 31-50 years which coincided with the present study. Similarly the total WBC count and the predominant cell type present in the affected joint is almost tallied with the study done by Ganesh et al 4
Based on the synovial fluid evaluation, the various types of arthritis were grouped and compared with the findings of previous studies. In the present study, Rheumatoid Arthritis (13 cases)was the most common arthritis next to septic arthritis (10 cases) and the next common is osteoarthritis (8 cases), tuberculosis arthritis (8 cases) and gout (7 cases).
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a painful inflammatory arthritis characterized by symmetrical inflammation of the synovium of the small joints of the hands, wrist and feet leading to progressive joint damage like deformities and loss of function.4
Hematogenous infection and direct inoculation of joint during surgery or trauma are the significant causes of Septic arthritis. It is more prevalent among the pediatric age population.7
Gout is a systemic disease which results from hyperuricemia with deposition of needle shaped monosodium urate crystals in the tissues (Figure no 1), particularly joints which can be confirmed using Polarized light microscopy.8
In our study the most common condition wasRheumatoid arthritis, which is in concordance withthe study done by Venkatraman et al and Singhal et al9,10 where the prevalent cause was Tuberculous arthritis. Chronic non- specific synovitis was used in the absence of diagnostic features of specific inflammation.
Closed needle biopsy is a simple outpatient procedure without complications that aids in establishing the diagnosis after clinical and radiological correlation. This type of simple procedure plays a vital role in differential diagnosis of joint diseases which has been studied extensively by various authors11,12
Further, it has been mentioned in the literature that the macroscopic features of inflammation seen at arthroscopy do not predict the microscopic features. Thus, the use of closed needle biopsy technique is justified.13
Conclusion
Synovial fluid analysis will give us an idea about the differential diagnosis of joint diseases. Synovial fluid aspiration should be done for the analysis and also used as a treatment procedure of synovial inflammation. Cytology reveals the predominant cells involved in the inflammatory disorders and also the normal content of the synovial fluid.
Funding:No funding sources
Limitations: None
Conflicts of interest: No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported
Ethical approval: Approved.
Acknowledgement: Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2627http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2627
Kahlenberg JM, Fox DA. Advances in the medical treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Hand Clin.2011; 27(1):11-20.
Vosse D, de Vlam K. Osteoporosis in rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. Clinical and experimental rheumatology.2009; 27:62.
Ropes MW, Bauer W. Synovial Fluid Changes in Joint Disease. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press; 1953.
Ganesh K Reddy, Rallapalli R, Galla SS, Ravindran B. A prospective study for diagnosing joint diseases by synovial fluid analysis and percutaneous needle biopsy of synovium. Int J Res Orthop2017;3:661-9
S Abdullah, S A Young-Min, S J Hudson, C A Kelly, C R Heycock, J D Hamilton. Gross synovial fluid analysis in the differential diagnosis of Joint effusion. J ClinPathol 2007; 60:1144–1147.
Hollender JL. Examination of synovial fluid as a diagnostic aid in arthritis. Med Clin North Am, 1966, 50:1281–93.
Vijay PM, Doddikoppad MM. Clinicopathological study of inflammatory synovial lesion. Int J Biol Med.2011; 2(4):882-8.
Gaafar Ragab, Mohsen Elshahaly, Thomas Bardin. Gout: An old disease in new perspective – A review. Journal of Advanced Research 8 (2017) 495–511.
Singhal O, KaurV, Kalhan S, Singhal MK, Gupta A, Machave YV. Arthroscopic synovial biopsy in definitive diagnosis of joint diseases: An evaluation of efficacy and precision. Int J App Basic Med Res.2012;2:102-6
Venkataraman M., Sathyadharan P. Role of Needle Synovial Biopsy in Joint Diseases. J Evol Med Dental Sci.2015; 4(44):7626-34.
Verma R, Gupta SP, VinodK. Place of synovial fluid examination and needle biopsy of synovial membrane in diagnosis of monoarticular joint diseases. Ind J Ortho.1983; 17(1):8-12.
Sakhuja A, Singh S, Chaturvedi S, Bajpai J, Shukla R. Synovial fluid analysis and synovial biopsy in various types of arthritis’s. Indian J Orthopaed. 1981; 15(2):157.
Bresnihan B. Synovial biopsy in arthritis research: five years of concerted European collaboration. Ann Rheumatic Dis.2000; 59(7):506-11.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411117EnglishN2019September9HealthcareStudy of Incidence and Type of Deafness in Children Withdelayed and Non Development of Speech in Apediatric Tertiary Health Care Centre Among 5500 Childrenover 5 Years
English0611Poulomi SahaEnglish Kapildev MondalandEnglish Pallab Kumar MajumderEnglishIntroduction: Childhood deafness is a multifaceted disability which affects a child’s ability to hear and delays the speech development and language learning skill. Thus results in cognitive impairments in these children including lower IQ scores, slower information processing skills and poorer literacy skills.
Aim of the Study: To find the incidence and pattern of deafness in children with non and delayed development of speech and to look for the risk factors associated with this.
Study Type: Retrospective, observational and analytical.
Methods and Discussion: 5504 deaf children of 0 – 12 years attended OPD of Department of ENT Dr. B.C. ROY from June, 2014 – June, 2019 .We have examined,taken detailed history, done audiological tests and assessed after dividing the children in three age groups. Children were subdivided according to the severity of deafness and relation of each kind of deafness with non and delayed development of speech were assessed. Associated risk factors were also looked for at each stage of study.
Results: Highest number (3328) of deaf children were found in 0-3 years of age. 1502 deaf children were found in 3-7 years age group and 674 deaf children were found in 7-12 years age group. Speech and language development was significantly not developed in patients with profound and severe deaf children.
Conclusion: Highest number of deaf children were found in 0-3 years of age group. Among the major risk factors that were identified during the study in this group were prematurity, LBW, HIE, neonatal jaundice and consanguineous marriage . While in 3-7 years and 7-12 years age groups , otitis media was seen to cause hearing loss more than the other etiologies.
EnglishLeading, Around, CongenitalIntroduction
According to WHO (2016) around 360 million people (5% of the world’s population ) live with hearing loss, out of these nearly 32 million are children. In India, 63 million people (6.3%) suffer from significant hearing loss. Four in every 1000 children suffer from severe to profound hearing loss. Yearly more than 100,000 babies are actually born with hearing deficiency. Out of every 1000 children born in India, there may be 5–6 such children who cannot hear properly. Because of lack of visual indicator, most hearing impaired children who are not screened at birth are not identified until between 1½ and 3 years of age, which is actually well beyond the critical period for healthy speech and language development. The prevalence of speech and language delay was found to be 27% under 3 years of age. Exact figures of delayed or non development of speech under 12 years were not studied because it was difficult to determine . Overall 3% to 10% of children are affected by speech delay. Boys are 3 to 4 times affected more than girls. Hearing, Speech and language disorders needs early intervention. Hearing disability along with delay in speech and language skills results in cognitive impairments including lower IQ score, slower information processing skills and poorer literacy skills like reading and spelling .Thus leading to psychosocial deficits in these children which is persisting till adulthood . However, with the help of newborn hearing screening, early detection of hearing loss and speech delay, a hearing-impaired child can be identified and treated early.
As per WHO(2016), while the most obvious impact of childhood hearing loss is on language acquisition, it also adversely affects literacy of the child along with the development of social skills and attitudes mainly self-esteem. Untreated hearing loss is often associated with academic underachievement which can lead to lower job performance and fewer employment opportunities later in life. For a child, difficulties in communication may result in feelings of anger, stress, loneliness and emotional or psychological consequences which may have a profound effect on the family as a whole. In low-resource settings in which a child would already be at higher risk of injury, hearing loss can place a child in unsafe situations due to decreased alertness.
Indian Census 2011(http://censusindia.gov.in) shown that, India has 19 % population with hearing disability. This census revealed number of disabled persons is highest in the age group 10-19 years (46.2 lakhs). In this group 20% are having hearing disability followed by 18% having visual disability and rest 9% with multiple disabilities. The estimated prevalence of adult deafness in India is 7.6% and while childhood onset deafness is 2% . Out of total 48.6 % disable population of west Bengal, 9.2% have speech disability.
Speech and language development is a useful indicator of a child's development and cognitive ability. Identification of children at a risk for developmental delay or related problems may lead to intervention and assistance at a young age, when the chances for improvement are the best.
OBJECTIVE
Primary Objective:
To assess
(a) the incidence of deafness and type of deafness of children from day 0 to 12 years of age and
(b)the prevalence of speech and language delay in children less than three years of age using the Language Evaluation Scale Trivandrum (LEST 0-3)
Secondary Objective:
To study the risk factors for deafness and speech delay in children less than 12 years of age.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Place of study: Department of ENT, at Dr. B.C. ROY, PGIPS , Department of ENT at a Tertiary Pediatric health care center in Kolkata (W.B.).
Study period: June, 2014 – June, 2019.
Study sample: Five thousand five hundred and four (5504) children (age group 0 – 12 years) attending the out-patient department . Children are subdivided in three age groups -
( a)Group A – 0 to 3 years(3,328 Patients),
(b)Group B- 3years 1 month to 7 years (1502 Patients)and
(c)Group C – 7years 1 month to 12 years(674 Patients).
INCLUSION CRITERIA
A)Neonates with routine neonatal hearing screening-
a)Low birth weight baby, b) babies with neonatal asphyxia, c) neonates with respiratory distress syndrome and d) neonates with prolonged(more than 3 weeks) SNCU and NICU admission,
B) Children with complaints deafness or of decreased hearing or no response to sound stimuli and c)children with non and delayed development of speech are included in this study.
EXCLUSION CRITERIA
a)Children with congenital anomaly b)children with syndromes and c)children with mental retardation and cerebral Palsy.
Study type: Retrospective, observational, analytical study.
Ethical clearance: Institutional ethics committee clearance was taken prior to the commencement of the study.
STUDY METHOD
After a thorough clinical history was obtained from each patient consisting of 10 questionnaire of prenatal, perinatal and post natal period. History obtained from mother regarding gestational drug intake ,diabetes, hypertension or any other illness. Then all risk factors of infant hearing loss and progressive or late onset hearing loss are screened. The following tests were advocated :
(A)Group A(0-3 years) :
1)BERA 2)OAE(transient evoked) 3)language evaluation scale Trivandrum (LEST 0-3) and 4)home screening questionnaire (HSQ) by NIDCD(National Institute of Deafness and Communication Disorder).
(B)Group B(3-7 years):
(1)BERA,(2)behavioral conditioned play audiometry(CPA)and(3) home screening questionnaire (HSQ) by NIDCD(National institute of deafness and communication disorder).
Group C(7-12 years):
1)BERA, 2) PTA and Impedance and 3)Home Screening Questionnaire (HSQ) by NIDCD(National Institute of Deafness and Communication Disorder).
RESULT AND ANALYSES
AGE DISTRIBUTION:
It is seen that the highest number of patients screened are of 0-3 years of age. Total 3328 children were evaluated in 0-3 years of age, while in 3.1years-7 years of age total 1502 and in 7.1 years to 12 years of age 674 children were examined.
From our study, it was seen that in 0-3 years of age group, 1467 kids were having profound SNHL,879 children had severe SNHL,667 had moderate SNHL while only 315 children had mild SNHL.
It is the age when hearing screening of all infants and children is most important as screening at this critical developmental stage can prevent or reduce many of these adverse consequences.
Speech was not developed in any child 0-3 years with profound deafness and severe deafness. Normal speech was noted to develop only in 9% children with moderate deafness and 27% children with mild deafness.
As the result shows, hearing loss was both congenital (present at birth) or acquired (present after birth). 50% of all congenital hearing loss is due to genetic factors . Out of these hereditary cases, approximately 30% are classified as syndromic. About 400 named syndromes are associated with hearing loss, the associated auditory features being quite variable – sensory neural or conductive, unilateral or bilateral, and progressive and stable .1
Causes that are not hereditary in nature include illnesses, prenatal infections and conditions occurring at the time of birth. Hearing loss can also occur after birth, perhaps as a result of a disease, a condition or an injury or environmental factors, like congenital hyper bilirubinemia, ototoxic medication exposure, neonatal hypoxia, viral infections, and meningitis.
In our experience, 55 % of patients suffered from hearing loss due to otitis media while by the age of 4 years 87% of children had experienced at least one episode of otitis media, while 45% of them had three or more such incidents .
11% kids had with hearing loss in one ear, lags behind in language skills, study finds Washington University school of medicine. By the time they reach school age, one in 20 children have hearing loss in one ear. That can raise significant hurdles for these children, say the results of a new study, because loss of hearing in one ear hurts their ability to comprehend and use language.
One of the main impact of hearing loss in this developing age is the child’s inability to converse with others. Children with hearing loss often suffered in spoken language development .Hearing loss and ear diseases such as otitis media can have a significant adverse effect on the education and learing of children. However, if people suffering from hearing loss are provided a chance to communicate they can participate on an equal footing with others.
DISCUSSION
Until recently, the problem of hearing loss was not a priority for the Indian Government. However, with the advent of National program for the prevention and control of deafness (NPPCD) there is a renewed interest in this mammoth public health problem. Half of all the cases of deafness and hearing impairment are avoidable through proper prevention, early diagnoses and management. Hearing sense is crucial for the mental and overall development of a child. Identifying the hearing loss early will prevent the problem to magnify. This will also decrease the burden of hearing loss and thus many presumptively productive years lost will not happen. Screening of the newborns and infants is the cost-effective way to reduce the burden of hearing loss. “Catch them young” should be the central theme of any program for the control of deafness. The objective of this paediatric tertiary health care study is to find the status of the childhood deafness in present time and may suggest ways of prevention of childhood deafness and speech delay in the national program. Screening is a very useful and important tool as by only simple screening hearing loss in neonates and infants , can be identified earlier than its usual time of diagnosis. Neonates and infants are not routinely screened for any specific disease in India because of the pressing need to control the infectious causes and deaths due to it. Though, India as a country has been successful in lowering mortality rates, the burden of disability has not come down, in fact, it has risen down the years. Many disabilities can be avoided if we have a proper screening programs as every individual has a right to lead a healthy life. Communication disorder like hearing impairment affects very early part of life. Only through systematic early detection program, infants with hearing loss can be assured of a chance to develop their full potential to have their well deserving active, contributing, and integrated social life. For their sake and ours, we cannot afford to waste any more precious human resources. Regardless of the age of onset, all children with hearing loss require prompt identification and intervention by appropriate professionals.
WHO estimates that about 60% of hearing loss in children under 15 years of age is preventable. In developing countries like ours, children with impaired hearing or deafness rarely receive any schooling. Such children when reach adulthood, because of their hearing loss and speech disorder ,they are subjected to higher unemployment rate. Among those who are employed, a higher percentage of people with hearing loss are in the lower grades of employment compared with the general workforce. Whatever may be reason of speech delay in school going children, whether it is SHNL or Mental retardation ,or hyperactivity or attention deficit or poor language and language stimulation or brain damage, we should have enough resources to screen them to identify and treat them accordingly.
CONCLUSION
The current study where 5504 deaf children were screened in tertiary pediatric health care setup, only represented a tip of the iceberg of present pediatric deafness scenario. Highest number of deaf children (3328) were found in 0-3 years of age group. They suffered from profound and severe deafness. Among the major risk factors that were identified during the study in this group , the common were prematurity, LBW, HIE, neonatal jaundice and consanguineous marriage . While in 3-7 years and 7-12 years age groups, otitis media was seen to cause hearing loss more than the other etiologies. It was surprising to note from this study that congenital deafness was not detected in significant number of children in first 3 years or even worse in first 7 years of life. Because of non availability of proper screening measures at grass root health care delivery system and lack of concern of family members of young children, diagnosis was often delayed leading into non and delayed speech in these children. In all age groups, children with profound and severe deafness were devoid of normal speech and language development. Children with moderate hearing loss showed a promising speech development but that again was not up to the mark in comparison to normal hearing children. Even the children mild hearing loss showed speech defect and underperformance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: We acknowledge medical superintendent cum vice principal of Dr B.C. Roy Hospital for providing all the amenities to conduct this study. We also thank editors of different journal and text book from where we have taken references.
SOURCES OF FUNDING:
We expend from our personal account.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST:There is no conflict of interest from our side for this study.
ABBREVIATIONS:
WHO=World health organisation
NIDCD=National institute of deafness and communication disorder
SNHL=Sensorineural hearing loss (Snhl)
PTA= Pure tone audiometry
OAE=Oto acoustic emission
BERA = Brainstem evoked response audiometry
HIE= Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy
LBW=Low birth weight
MADI=Maternal entenatal drug intake.
10. HSQ=Home screening questionnaire
11. NPPCD=National program for prevention and control of deafness
12.IQ=intelligent quotient.
13.NICU=Neonatal intensive care unit.
14.PICU=Pediatrcintensive care unit.
15.LBW=Low birth weight.
16.HIE=Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy.
17.CMV=Cytomegalo virus.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2628http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2628Present Scenario of Childhood Deafness: A Tertiary Level Health Care Study. Kinjal Shankar Majumdar et al. Bengal Journal of Otolaryngology and Head Neck Surgery Vol. 25 No. 2 August, 2017
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Prevalence and Risk Factors of Speech and Language Delay in Children Less Than Three Years of Age. Nivedita Mondal, B.Vishnu Bhat, Nishad Plakkal, Mahalakshmy Thulasingam, Payyadakkath Ajayan, and D. Rachel Poorna. Published online 2016 April 26. ComprPed. 2016 May; 7(2):e33173.
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Taneja MK, Qureshi S. Holistic approach to deafness. Indian J Otol 2015;21:1-4
Developmental Outcomes of Early-Identified Children who are Hard of Hearing at 12 to 18 Months of Age. Published in final edited form as: Early Hum Dev. 2015 Jan; 91(1): 47–55.Published online 2014 Dec 2. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.11.005.PMCID: PMC4327861.NIHMSID: NIHMS647534.PMID: 25460257
Infant Hearing Screening in India: Current Status and Way Forward. Suneela Garg et al. Int J Prev Med. 2015; 6: 113. Published online 2015 Nov 19. doi: 10.4103/2008-7802.170027.PMCID: PMC4689099. PMID: 26730343
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NIDCD. National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorder. NIH Publication No. 10–4040. Updated September 2010
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411117EnglishN2019September9Life SciencesSoil Mycobiota Influenced by Different Concentration of Basic Fuschin Dye
English1217Neelam Sagar*English Rup NarayanEnglishAim: The present study was done to evaluate the effect of the dye basic fuchsin (BF) on soil mycobiota with an aim to mark out the fungal strains which might be able to remove triphenylmethane dyes from effluent by adsorption.
Methodology: Pot experiments were conducted during the study and different concentration (500, 750 and 1000 ppm) of Basic fuschin dye were used on soil mycobiota. Soils treated with different concentration of the solution of basic fuchsin were screened for fungal isolates.
Results: A. flavus and A. niger could survive basic fuchsin treatment in the soil to a reasonable extent and their sizable populations were isolated from BF treated soil throughout the period of 90 days, even from the soil treated with as high as 1000 ppm concentration of the dye.
Discussion: The genus Aspergillus and Aspergillus niger could survive in the higher concentration of dye. It can tolerate the 1000 ppm of Basic fuschin dye and it may be helpful to overcome water pollution by removing color contaminants from water bodies through biosorption.
EnglishBasic fuchsin, Dye-tolerant fungi, Soil mycobiotaINTRODUCTION
Pollution is the worldwide problem and it’s potential to affect the health of human population. The major effort that has been made over years to clean up the environment, pollution still remains a drastic problem and posses continuing risk to health. The pollution problem is undoubtedly great in the growing population (Fereidown et al. 2007). Soil pollution is one the major form of environmental disaster our world is facing today (Khan, 2004). The basic sources of pollution are emission from industry, inadequate waste management, contaminated water supply, extreme uses of chemical fertilizers etc. Besides these factors, drastically increasing population and growing industries, and volcanic ash from Iceland (World Health Organization, 2010) are the other source of soil pollution (Briggs, 2003). Rapid industrialization and the lack of public awareness towards the environment invites natural disaster (Carter, 1985; Helpppart and Sparks, 2006.
Soil pollution causes cancer including leukemia and it can cause developmental damage to the brain of young children. The trace amount of mercury present in soil increases the risk of neuromuscular blockage which can cause headache, kidney failure depression of the central nervous system and can also cause eye irritation, skin, nausea and fatigue. Soil pollution is closely associated with air and water pollution that’s why it’s numerous effects come out as similar as caused by water and air contamination. Soil pollution can also alter the metabolism of plants and reduce crop yield and same process with microorganisms in given soil environment; this may eliminate some layers of the key food chain and thus have a negative effect on animals. Small life forms can consume harmful chemicals which can then be passed up the food chain to larger animals; this might be lead to increased mortality rates and even animal extinction. (Khan and Ghouri, 2011)
Industrial effluent alters the number and activity of microorganisms and also affects physico-chemical process and fertility of the soil. Microorganisms are of assistance in increasing the soil fertility and plant growth as they are related with certain biochemical activities in soil. The microorganisms sometimes affect soil environment more quickly than abiotic stress (Titljanova and Tesarova, 1991). Extreme uses of chemicals or effluent can also damage the beneficial microorganisms. (Hemanth et al, 2016) Hence, the microbial community may be useful as a highly sensitive bioindicator of soil disturbance and process of remediation. (Gremion et al, 2004). Nematodes, bacteria and fungi are the main microorganisms present in rhizosphere. Fungi are major components for soil microbiota, it constitutes more of the soil biomass than bacteria which depends upon soil depth and nutrient conditions.
Chemical contamination can cause a shift in microbial population (Doelman et al 1994, Roane and Kellogg, 1996, Elis et al, 2001; Kelly et al, 2003; Lugauskas et al, 2005). The physicochemical processes that occur naturally in certain biomass allow it to passively concentrate and bind contaminants into its cellular structure. (Sameera, 2011). Different kinds of biomasses as fungal and yeast, bacterial biomass, algal biomass have special surface properties to accumulate chemicals (Shankar et al 2014).
Fungi play a crucial role in nutrient cycling by regulating soil biological activity; these fungi grow in different pH, moisture, temperature, and nutrient availability. Fungi also benefits most plant by suppressing plant root disease and promoting healthier plant by attacking plant pathogens with fungal enzymes. Fungi get influence over other microorganisms by secreting enzyme and they also have the ability to survive and propagate in extreme condition environment.
Among all the microorganisms, fungal cell wall is a complex macromolecular structure consisting of chitin, glucans, mannans, proteins also containing other polysaccharides’, lipids and pigments like melanin (Gadd, 1993). Different functional groups are able to bind dyes and other chemicals to different degrees (Bailey et. al. 1999). Chitin is a very important structural component of fungal cell wall which is an effective biosorbent for chemicals and radionuclides (Gadd, 2008). Micro-organisms (fungi) can develop high resistance to dye and metals through adsorption to cell surface, complexation by exo-polysaccharides, intracellular accumulation, and precipitation, ( Saxena, 2006).
The present communication was conducted with an aim to isolate those fungal species from the soil which are capable of surviving basic fuchsin pollution and to obtain basic fuchsin resistant fungal strains which might facilitate the management of dye level in soil and effluents.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Thirty six pots of 150 ml capacity, each filled with 100 gm soil were taken for the present study. Nine pots from these thirty six pots were treated with 25 ml of distilled water at regular intervals of seven days for a total period of twelve weeks. These nine pots served as control. The remaining 27 pots were treated with different concentrations of basic fuchsin dye solution. Nine pots were treated with 500 ppm, nine pots were treated with 750 ppm and the remaining nine pots with 1000 ppm concentration of basic fuchsin dye solution.
After 30 days, soil from the three pots of control were mixed thoroughly to obtain a composite sample. Similarly, three composite samples were prepared from the soil treated with basic fuchsin dye (one composite sample each for 500 ppm, 750 ppm and 1000 ppm concentration). Each composite soil sample so obtained was analyzed for mycobiota, using dilution plate method (Waksman, 1927). 20 gm of soil from the composite sample were transferred to 200 ml of sterilized distilled water and stirred well. 10 ml of this suspension were immediately transferred to a conical flask containing 90 ml of sterilized distilled water. From this suspension, 1:100, 1:1,000, 1:10000 and 1:100000 were prepared. From the suspension of each dilution, 1 ml aliquots were transferred to each of a set of three Petri dishes followed by the addition of 20 ml of cooled and sterilized Potato Dextrose Agar medium amended with 30 ppm Rose Bengal and 30 ppm streptomycin (per liter of medium). After inoculation, the Petri dishes were incubated at 250 C ± 2 for 4 to 5 days. The total number of colonies of individual fungal species growing in each Petri dish were recorded at a regular interval of time. The fungal strains obtained were identified using standard keys (Gilman, 1957; Nagamani et al.,2006). For the preparation of axenic culture, the fungal strains were transferred to the Petri plates containing fresh medium.
Composite samples were obtained from the basic fuchsin treated soil with different concentration were processed similarly. The procedure was repeated after 60 and 90 days.
RESULTS
A total of 35 species of fungi were isolated from the control as well as those treated with basic fuchsin dye using dilution plate method. Out of these, only one belongs to Zygomycota and one belongs to Ascomycota while remaining 33 species were anamorphic fungi. Eight fungal species belonged to the genus Aspergillus. The number of isolates of the aspergilli largely dominated the culture plates. The result of the present study indicates that A. niger is the most dominant species that could tolerate basic fuchsin dye even at 1000 ppm concentration. Madhuri and Vijyalakshmi (2014) could obtain 19 fungal species from the dye amended soil and observed the dominance of aspergillus species. Also, A. niger, A. fumigatus and A. flavus were the most dominant fungal species isolated from trypan blue treated soil. On the other hand, the genus Chaetomium was represented by 5 species and other fungal species constituted only a minor fraction. It is believed that aspergilli are more abundant in the warmer regions as compared to the other fungal species (Waksman, 1917; Jensen, 1975; Singh and Charaya, 1975; Sen et al., 2009; Kumar and Charaya, 2012; and Choudhary et al., 2015).
After 30 days, the number of fungal species were reduced with increase in dye concentration. After 60 days of treatment, greater number of isolates as compared to control were obtained from the soil treated with 1000 ppm of basic fuchsin dye. After 90 days, lesser number of isolates were obtained with 500 ppm and 1000 ppm as compared to 750 ppm solution. In the present study, an overall inhibitory effect of basic fuchsin was observed on soil mycobiota i.e. with the increasing concentration of pollutants (dye) the diversity of microflora decreased (with few exceptions). This is further approved by calculation of Diversity indices (D and 1-D).
DISCUSSION
A. niger is the most dominant species that could tolerate basic fuchsin dye up-to 1000 ppm concentration. This is probably due to the capacity of A. niger to produce toxins that may prevent the growth of other fungal species (Chandrashakar et al., 2014). In the present study, 35 different species of fungi were obtained. However, Choudhary et al., 2015 obtained as many as 52 different fungal species, possibly because of a different approach been followed. Choudhary et al., 2015 followed an approach in which in-situ treatment of pollutants (in the field itself) was given to the soil. In the present study, the soils were filled in the pots and probably the transfer of the soil to the pots might have disturbed the mycobiota during drying, sieving and transfer. (Pickett and White, 1985; Kumar and Charaya, 2012).
Babich and Stotzky (1982) observed that the level of pollutant which is lethal to a majority of microbes may only cause mutation in some and thereby increase the selection of such strains which can tolerate the higher concentration of pollutant. The subsequent multiplication and survival of these strains may have led to an increase in the population of such strains resulting in a total positive effect in the fungal population. As far as mycodiversity is concerned, the treatment with dye solution did not appear to have any appreciable inhibitory effect on the number of species isolated from the soil till 90 days. After 90 days of treatment lesser number of fungal species was isolated as compared to control (Kumar and Charaya, 2012).
Bragulat et al., (1991) observed that even 1 ppm concentration of basic dye in culture medium could reduce the colony diameter of Aspergillus flavus by 4.5%. In the present finding, the treatment with 1000 ppm solution of basic fuchsin resulted in increase rather than decrease in the number of some fungal isolates. On the whole, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium sp. could resist basic fuchsin to a reasonable extent and their populations were able to survive basic fuchsin in the soil throughout the period of study, even the soil treated with 1000 ppm. It is expected that these fungal strains are able to degrade the dye or adsorb it and could be used to remove environmental pollution.
Conclusion
Present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of basic dye on soil mycobiota to obtain fungal strains which might be able to remove basic dyes by the process of adsorption. In the present observation soil were treated with different concentration i.e. 500 ppm, 750 ppm and 1000 ppm for basic dye over the total period of 90 days to screened the fungal isolates. Out of total 35 species eight fungal species belonged to the genus Aspergillus and Aspergillus niger is the most dominant species that could tolerate triphenylmethane dye even at 1000 ppm concentration and it may be helpful to remove color contaminants from water bodies in future with the help of biosorption. Besides the genus Aspergillus, Chaetomium were represented by 5 species and other one constituted the miner fraction throughout the period of three month.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. One of the authors (Neelam Sagar) is grateful to Department of Botany, C.C.S. University, Meerut (U. P.) for providing necessary facilities. Author is highly obliged to UGC for funding.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411117EnglishN2019September9Life SciencesEffect of Methylene Blue Addition as a Redox Mediator on Performance of Microbial Fuel Cell Using Mud Sediment of River Ala
English1825Olotu T. MEnglish; Adegunloye D. V.English Ekundayo F. O.EnglishMicrobial fuel cells (MFCs) are also bioreactors that convert chemical energy stored in the bonds of organic matters into electricity through biocatalysis of microorganisms. Mud sediment of various depths (surface water, mud surface, 50cm, 100cm and 150cm) of River Ala were used in a double chamber microbial fuel cell (MFC) to generate electric current and comparative studies of the methylene blue mediator and mediator-less chamber were carried out. Microbial analyses, physiochemical analysis of the sediment were analyzed using standard methods. River Ala surface has the highest bacteria count of 2.4 x 10-5 and AL100cm has the lowest of 0.48 x 10-5 while AL100cm had the lowest fungi count of 0.2 x 10-6. The pH of sediment ranged from 7.52 to 6.52 and organic matter content 3.67 to 1.83(%). The mud surface has the highest conductivity and salinity content of 740 (μS) and 359 (ppm) respectively. The current and voltage readings obtained from of the methylene blue mediator chamber were slightly higher than that of the mediator-less chamber. Current 0.5 (mA) at only depth 50cm was observed in mediator-less chamber while 0.4 (mA) were common occurrences at depth 50cm and depth 100cm at the methylene blue mediator chamber; voltage readings of 0.3(V) only occurred depth 50cm in the mediator-less chamber while 0.3 (V) were observed at both depth 50cm and 100cm at the methylene blue mediator chamber. The low current and voltage reading were as a result of the high resistance it’s generated and its low organic matter content. It is also a confirmation that the mediator used has an impact in the current and voltage generated in microbial fuel cell.
EnglishSediment, Microorganisms, Electric current, Methylene blue and Microbial fuel cellIntroduction
Electricity is an essential element in our daily life, something we cannot live without literally, we would die without it. From the simplest form of living organism to the complicated human body, electrical force governs every single physiological process. Bio-electricity is vital in storing metabolic energy and providing signals to other cells which influence growth, regeneration and communication (Levin and Stevenson, 2012). In 2005, 66% of that electricity was generated from coal, petroleum and natural gas and was responsible for 10.9 Gt (41%) of world energy- related CO2 emission (Brandt, et al., 2007). Depending on the region, your electricity could come from the dirtiest coal burning plant, a high risk nuclear facility, or a hydro electrical dam, which, although pollution free, still deteriorates the local geological and ecological systems. The human-induced greenhouse effect as a result of fossil fuel reliance has become an increasingly controversial issue in many countries since the 1960s. The fast depletion of fossil fuel due to intensive extraction and usage is widely believed to be associated with the atmospheric CO2 concentration increase from 275 ppm to 397 ppm in the last two centuries. As a result, development of sustainable energy technologies which can continue providing society with energy-derived benefits without further environmental destructions is highly desirable. A series of green energy solutions, such as solar, wind and biomass energy, have been introduced in the hope of preventing the impending global environmental crisis (Brandt, et al., 2007). Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bio-electrochemical cell which utilizes electrogenic bacteria to oxidize a variety of substrates including acetate, glucose, volatile fatty acids and inorganic substances such as sulfides and nitrite, to form electrical current(Faraghi and Ebharimi, 2012; Rabaey, et al., 2006). Through the oxidation process electrons and protons are generated at anode and recombined at the cathode to produce water (Logan et al., 2006) MFC consists of two compartments: an anaerobic anode and aerated cathode compartments which are separated by a proton exchange membrane or salt bridge (Sharma et al., 2010; Higgins et al., 2013). Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are also bioreactors that convert chemical energy stored in the bonds of organic matters into electricity through biocatalysis of microorganisms (Davis and Yarbrough, 1962; Moon et al., 2006). A typical MFC chamber has the anodic and cathodic chamber and is separated by a proton exchange membrane (PEM) (Wilkinson, 2000; Gil et al., 2013) which allows transport protons while blocking oxygen and other compounds. Microbes in the anodic chamber degrade organic matters and produce electrons, protons and carbon dioxide. Electrons and protons produced by microbes are then transported to the cathodic chamber via external circuit and a proton exchange membrane (PEM), respectively. In the cathodic chamber, protons and electrons react with oxygen to form water. Because the terminal electron acceptor (i.e., oxygen) is kept away from the anodic chamber, electrons are allowed to pass through the external load to generate electricity (Park, et al., 2000; Du et al., 2007). A variety of bacteria can produce a modicum of electricity in an MFC if a mediator is used to facilitate the transfer of electrons between the bacterial cells and the anodic surface used in the system, while many other bacteria have been found to possess the ability to transfer electrons from fuel (substrate) oxidation to a working electrode without a mediator (Logan, 2009). Direct electron transfer from anaerobic anode chamber to its surface had shown to take place at low efficiency. Electron transfer efficiencies in MFCs can be improved using a suitable electron mediator. Most biological fuel cells use electron mediator component to improve the power output of the cell. It has been reported that mediators are artificially added to anode chamber, such as MB, neutral red (NR), thionin, ferricyanide, humic acid or methyl viologen. The presence of artificial electron mediators is essential to improve the performance of MFCs (Park and Zeikus, 2000). This experiment is to determine microbial population and identification of microorganisms in various depths of the mud sediment of River Ala, to compare the methylene blue mediator microbial fuel cell chamber with the mediator-less chamber in current and voltage generation. It will also determine of the pH, organic carbon, conductivity, ionization potential and salinity of the mud sediments in relation to current generation.
2. Materials and Methods
Collection of sample used in the Microbial fuel chamber
1kg mud sediment sample were collected at the various depths of the mud surface, depth 50cm, depth 100cm, depth 150cm and the surface water. Samples were collected aseptically in clean containers and transported to Microbiology laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Akure.
Microbiological and physiochemical analyses of the mud sediment samples
Microbial population and identification was determined for each samples (mud surface water, mud surface, depth 50cm, depth 100cm and depth 150cm) and for the control (which was soil sample of area close to the river). The microorganisms which were mainly bacteria, fungi and yeast were isolated using nutrient agar, centrimede agar, mannitol salt agar, salmonella- shigella agar, marconkey agar, eosin methyl blue and potato dextrose agar. The physiochemical parameters determined were pH using a Jenway’s pH meter, Conductivity using digital Conductivity Mettler Toledo M400 measuring meter and Salinity using electrical conductivity using a conductivity bridge .Organic matter of the soil was done according to the method of (Skotnikov, 1998) and mineral matter was determined using atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer according to (Bhargava and Raghupathi, 1993).
Construction for the various mud sediment depths
1.5 liter size transparent plastic bottles made up the cathode and anode chamber, hole of 2cm in diameter were bored at each side of the bottles. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe of dimensions 5 cm length and 2 cm diameter made up the agar salt bridge. Each container was surface sterilized with 70% ethanol before introduction of its content. The salt bridges to be used was prepared prior to collection of the mud sample and kept from contamination before use. Each salt bridge was then attached to the each anode and cathode bottle using an epoxyl gum as according to (Parkash, 2016).
Composition of anodic and cathode chamber
Mud sediment of 1litre size of the various samples (mud surface water, mud surface, depth 50cm, depth 100cm and depth 150cm) was introduced into the mediator and mediator-less anode chamber and the cathode chambers was filled 1L of NaCl solution which was made up 7.5g of Nacl in 100ml of water (Parkash, 2016).
Composition of salt bridge
The salt bridge solution was prepared according to the methods of (Parkash, 2016) by dissolving 3% agar in 1M NaCl. The solution was first subjected to heat for blending, which in return gave a clear solution of agar solution and was poured into each PVC pipe which was properly sealed with foil paper and was kept at 250C for 2hrs for solidification
Addition of methylene blue as mediator
30mls of mehylene blue was added to the each anode mediator chamber where 10mls was added daily for 72hrs as according to (Zuhri et al., 2016).
Measurement and collection of data calculation
Readings obtained for current, voltage and resistance was obtained using a
Result and Discussion
Figures 1-3 shows the bacteria, fungi and yeast population isolated from mud sediment of River Ala at various depths. Microorganisms were isolated at varies depth including control, surface water, mud surface, 50cm, 100cm and 150cm depth. Generally, microbial population of the various depths decreases as the depth increases. ALS has the highest bacteria count of 2.4 x 10-5 and AL100cm has the lowest of 0.48 x 10-5 while AL100cm had the lowest fungi count of 0.2 x 10-6 and ALC (Control) had the highest of 1.6 x 10-5. Also there were no growth observed at depth 150cm for fungi count and in yeast count at depth ALC, AL50, AL100 and AL150. Table1 shows the arrays of bacteria, fungi and yeast isolated from the various depths of surface water to depth 150cm
Figure 4 shows the Conductivity, Ionization potential, Organic matter content and Salinity content of River Ala at various depth of surface water, depth 50cm, depth 100cm and 150cm. The pH values of all mud were observed to be slightly acidic to neutral. Ala surface water (W), surface mud (0cm), 50cm, 100cm and 150cm depth records 7.52, 5.59, 5.50, 5.47 and 6.52 respectively. Organic matter content of mud at various depth were quite low, surface water (W), surface mud (0cm), 50cm, 100cm and 150cm depth recorded 2.12, 1.83, 3.69, 2.09 and 3.67 (%) respectively. For the ionization potentials depth 0cm has the highest ionization potential of 52Mev, surface water (W), surface mud (0cm), 50cm, 100cm and 150cm depth recorded 29, 52, 47, 24 and 32 (Mev) respectively. In the Conductivity readings, it was observed that depth 0cm has the highest conductivity and depth 100cm had the lowest. Surface water (W), surface mud (0cm), 50cm, 100cm and 150cm depth recorded 740,172, 119, 209 and 56 (µS) respectively. Salinity content of the various depths shows that surface water has the highest salinity content while depth 150cm had the lowest. Surface water (W), surface mud (0cm), 50cm, 100cm and 150cm depth recorded 359, 114, 189, 107 and 32 (ppm) respectively.
Tables 1 to 6 are showing the readings of current, voltage and resistance obtained from the mediator-less chamber and the mediator chamber across the various mud sediment depths. The current readings generally increase in the first four days of the experiment and decreases as the numbers of days of the experiment increases. Current readings for the mediator microbial fuel chambers were generally slightly higher than the mediator-less chamber. The mediator-less chambers readings ranged from 0.484 to 0.019 (mA) and mediator chambers readings ranged from 0.369 to 0.012 (mA) for surface water to depth 150cm. Plates 1 and 2 are showing the pictures of the microbial fuel cell chambers during the experiment.
KEYS:
AW-Ala surface water, AS- Ala mud surface, A50- Ala depth 50cm, A100- Ala depth 100cm and A150- Ala depth 150cm; AWM-Ala surface water with methylene blue, ASM- Ala mud surface with methylene blue, A50M- Ala depth 50cm with methylene blue, A100- Ala depth 100cm with methylene blue and A150- Ala depth 150cm with methylene blue.
Values followed by the same letters (s) on the same column are not significantly different (P≤ 0.05). Each value represents a mean of four reading
Microorganisms are used in MFC to convert organic and inorganic compounds into bioelectricity (Manohar and Mansfeld, 2009). Mud sediments from River Ala was use to generate electric current using microbial fuel cell, the sediment was oxidize by bacteria under anaerobic condition in the anode chamber generating protons and electrons. Microbial population of the various depths decreases as the depth increases (Figure 1 and 2). The decrease in the aerobic bacteria population down the depth might be due to oxygen retention is lower at the lower depths which only permit the growth of only anaerobic organisms. Fungal growth was not observed at the observed at the lower depths of the various river sediments, these findings agrees with findings of (Reddy et al., 2000) who reported that aerobic microbial populations are restricted to zones where oxygen is available and that aerobic organisms become quiescent or die and new inhabitants, largely facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria take over. (Fischer et al., 2002) concluded that Bacterial abundance generally decreases with sediment depth independent of the method used. Majorities of these microorganisms are faecal contaminates which might have accounted for the findings of (Jamieson et al., 2004) that bacteria often show an affinity for sediment attachment as sediments represent a beneficial environment for nutrient, food assimilation and protection from environmental stress such as contaminants and predation. pH of the mud sediments at various depths were slightly acidic to neutral pH. Sediment is also the major site for organic matter decomposition which is largely carried out by bacteria. pH is extremely important, since most of the chemical reactions in aquatic environment are controlled by any change in its value. Anything either highly acidic or alkaline would kill aquatic life. Aquatic organisms are sensitive to pH changes and biological treatment requires pH control (Abowei and Sikoki, 2005). High conductivity and salinity observed at the surface water than other depth might be that more ions that are present at the depth that led to its high conductivity and salinity is a good contributor to salinity. The higher current and voltage generation observed at the early stage of the experiment might be as a result the microorganisms could still get enough organic matter to metabolize in the anaerobic digestion to produce proton and electrons at the anode which at the later weeks the nutrient depleted and causes its reduction as according to the findings of (Pavan et al., 2015) who analyses energy harvested from Kitchen Waste through Two-chamber Microbial Fuel Cell. (Parkash, 2016) in his findings on characterization of voltage and current generated from cow dung using double chambered MFC observed that was a definitive increase in the generated current and voltage from day 1 to day 5 and then a decline in trend is observed from the day 6 downward. The resistance generated by the microbial fuel chamber that was very high might have contributed to the low current and voltage observed which aggress with (Menicucci et al., 2006) who revealed that cell voltage of MFC decreases when external resistance increases. (Samrot, et al., 2010) also input that MFCs with lower external resistances resulted in higher anode potentials. Methylene blue mediated MFC current and voltage generated was higher in general observation than mediator-less which is because they are aided by the addition of the methylene which busts their current generation potential which is in accordance with the findings of (Rahim Nejad et al., 2011) on methylene blue as electron promoters in microbial fuel cell. Most microbes are electrochemically inactive because the proteins associated with electron transport are contained within the cell membrane. Mediators can be used to facilitate the transfer of electrons from the microbial membrane to the MFC electrode for these microbes (Kim, et al., 2005). Mediators are preferentially reduced during the metabolic oxidation of organic materials, and the reduced form of the mediator is then re-oxidized at the working electrode (anode), which is maintained at a sufficiently high electric potential. Nearly any bacterium can be used to generate current in a mediated MFC.
Conclusion
Mud sediment for the use of generating electricity has proven to be one of the promising technologies through the use of microbial fuel cell and the use of mediator which help to facilitate non electrogenic bacteria to generate electric current; MFC had also proven to be a good cheap alternative to the use of fossil fuel for power generation.
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