Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareTASTE MASKING OF PIROXICAM BY SPRAYDRYING TECHNIQUE
English0412Ashwini G KiniEnglish Mudit DixitEnglish P.K KulkarniEnglish Venkatesh.AEnglish Akash JohriEnglishPiroxicam is a Non-steroidal anti inflammatory, analgesic and anti-pyretic drug. This is widely
used in Muscular-skeletal disorder like osteoarthritis. Piroxicam has bitter taste, half life of 30
hrs and poor water solubility. So the present work was focused on masking the bitter taste of
piroxicam. In the present research was to develop the taste-masked microspheres of bitter drug
piroxicam by spray-drying technique. The bitter taste threshold value of piroxicam was determined. Three different polymers viz. low molecular Chitosan, high molecular Chitosan and Pluronic F127 were used for piroxicam microsphere formation, and the effect of different polymers and drug–polymer ratios on the taste masking and release properties of microspheres was investigated. The microspheres were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Differential scanning colorimetric, scanning electron microscopy, Drug loading,
in vitro bitter taste evaluation, and drug-release properties. The taste masking was found absent in low molecular chitosan microspheres at 1:1 drug–polymer ratios. The high molecular chitosan microspheres showed taste masking at 1:2 drug–polymer ratio, whereas with Pluronic F127 microspheres the taste masking was not achieved at all the drug– polymer ratio. The drug release was about 53.34% for low molecular chitosan microspheres and 39.57% for high molecular Chitosan microspheres in 15 min. hence spray dried microspheres can be effective
technique for taste masking of bitter drugs without affecting the drug property.
Englishmicrospheres; spray drying; piroxicam, taste masking. INTRODUCTION
The biological definition of taste (Gustation) is a chemical reaction derived from sensory responses from the four main taste perceptions: salt, sour, bitter, and sweet. Taste sensation is the result of signal transduction from the receptor organs for taste, commonly known as taste buds. The taste buds contain very sensitive nerve endings which produce and transmit electrical impulses to the brain. The perception of taste only occurs when the substances are dissolved in mouth. The drug substance first gets solubilized in saliva and then they interact with the taste buds and perception of taste occurs [1,2]. Taking medicine orally is convenient and economical. It also requires cooperation from the patient. Unfortunately, many drugs have unpleasant taste primarily bitter. This has led to dilemma for modern pharmaceutical science as undesirable taste can hinder the acceptance and usefulness of many beneficial, safe, and efficacious drugs. Thus, elimination or reduction of bitterness is an important mainstay of product evaluation in oral pharmaceutical formulation. Numerous approaches have been reported for masking the bitter taste of the drugs such as [1] use of flavors and sweeteners, [2] use of polymeric carriers, [3] drug resin complexes, [4-7] formation of inclusion complexes, etc. Taste masking by polymeric coating involves formation of a physical barrier between drug particle and the taste bud, thus, minimizing the interaction. Polymeric coating retards the release of the drug in oral cavity, thus, prevents the interaction of drug with taste buds. Various hydrophilic and hydrophobic polymers such as hydroxylpropyl methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, polymethacrylates, microcrystalline cellulose, etc. are reported for taste masking. The method used for taste masking with polymers includes wet granulation, fluidized bed coating, microencapsulation, etc. [7-14]. Piroxicam is selected as a suitable candidate for taste masking due to its bitter taste. Piroxicam is a Non-steroidal anti inflammatory, analgesic and anti-pyretic drug which is widely used in Muscular-skeletal disorder like osteoarthritis. Piroxicam has bad taste, half life of 30 hrs and poor water solubility. The present investigation is aimed at use of polymers as a taste-masking agent like low molecular Chitosan, high molecular Chitosan and Pluronic F127 are used to prepare microspheres. Low molecular weight (150,000) chitosan is 75-85 percent deacetylated and has a viscosity of 20-200 cps) / High molecular weight (600,000) chitosan is a coarsely ground polymer prepared from crab or shrimp shells with a viscosity of 800-2000 cps) molecular weight) polycationic polysaccharide derived from naturally occurring chitin and is insoluble above pH 6 and it dissolve readily in diluted solution of several organic acids including formic, acetic, tartaric, citric and lactic acid (Rowe et al. 2004). Pluronic F-127 is a nonionic, surfactant polyol (molecular weight approximately 12,500 daltons) that has been found to facilitate the solubilization of water-insoluble dyes and other materials in physiological media. Spray drying was used for the preparation of the microspheres. Spray drying is widely used in pharmaceutical processing as it requires only a one-step process and can be easily controlled and scaled up.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Piroxicam (PIRX), low molecular weight chitosan (L.M.C), high molecule weight chitosan (H.M.C) and pluronic F 127 (PLU-F127) were gifted by IPCA lab, Mumbai, (India). The other chemicals and reagents used were of AR grade.
Preparation of Microspheres
The microspheres were prepared by spraydrying technique. The spray drying was performed by Mini Spray Dryer LSD -48; (Jay instrument and systems Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai). The different drug–polymer ratios used for various microsphere formulations were prepared described in Table 1. The polymer solution was prepared by adding given quantity of polymer to the solvent. For low and high molecular weight chitosan 1% glacial acetic acid and water were used as solvent mixture, whereas for pluronic F127, Dichloromethane was used as solvent (15). The given quantity of piroxicam was added to the polymer solution and the resulting mixture was spray-dried. The spray drying parameters are described in Table 2
Evaluation of taste masked
Microspheres Percentage Yield of spray dried microspheres
The yield of microspheres was determined by the formula,
Drug loading of spray dried microspheres
The drug loading was determined by UVVisible spectrophotometer. The microspheres were stirred with 100 ml 0.1 N HCl for 2 h. The drug concentration was determined at 334 nm after suitable dilution. The readings were taken in triplicate.
Determination of bitter taste recognition threshold value of piroxicam
The bitter taste threshold value of piroxicam was determined based on the bitter taste recognized by five volunteers (three males and two females) in the age group of 18– 25 years. Aqueous solutions of piroxicam with different concentrations (2, 4, 8, 13, and 18μg/ml) were prepared. One milliliter of solution was placed on the center of the tongue of volunteer for 30 s. The solution was spat out after 30 s, and the mouth was thoroughly rinsed with distilled water. The same procedure was repeated for all solutions and volunteers. A gap of 1 hr was maintained in between tasting two different solutions. The same procedure was repeated for piroxicam solutions with concentrations 4.5, 5.5, 6.5, and 7.5μg/ml. The threshold value was selected on the basis of the lowest concentration that had a bitter taste [4, 15,16, 17].
In vitro bitter taste evaluation of microspheres
Microspheres (equivalent to 8 mg of piroxicam) were placed in a volumetric flask with 25 ml of phosphate buffer pH 7.4 and stirred for 5 min. The mixture was filtered, and the filtrate was analyzed for piroxicam concentration at 334 nm by UVVisible spectrophotometer method (UV 1601 A Shimadzu, Japan) and that was compared with the threshold value.
Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
The FTIR spectral measurements were taken at ambient temperature using a Shimadzu, Model 8033 (USA). Samples were dispersed in KBr powder and the pellets were made by applying 5 ton pressure. FTIR spectra were obtained by powder diffuse reflectance on FTIR spectrophotometer.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM):
Scanning electron microscopic (Joel- LV- 5600, USA, with magnification of 250x) photographs were obtained to identify and confirm spherical nature and Surface topography of the microspheres.
Dissolution studies of microspheres:
The dissolution of piroxicam pure sample, spray dried microspheres formulations were determined by using USP dissolution apparatus XXIV-Type II (Electro Lab, Mumbai). Dissolution medium was 900 ml 7.4 Phosphate buffer. The amount of dissolved drug was determined using UV spectrophotometric method (UV 1601 A Shimadzu, Japan) at 334 nm. The readings were taken in triplicate.
RESULTS
The glass transition temperature (Tg) is the second-order phase change temperature at which a solid glass is transformed to a liquid-like rubber. As the temperature increases above, Tg various changes, such as increase of free volume, decrease of viscosity, increase of specific heat, an increase of thermal expansion, are noticed. During spray drying, if the drying temperature exceeds the Tg of the polymer, the powder becomes soft or sticky while still warm. This cause The Sticking of powder to the side walls of drying chamber.
Drug Loading and % yield
Table 4, summarizes the results of drug loading and production % yield.
Determination of Bitter Taste Recognition
All the Five volunteers could not recognize the bitter taste of Piroxicam at 4.5 and 6.5μp/ml. four out of five volunteers can percept the bitter taste at 9.5pg/ml, whereas all the seven volunteers reported that the solutions of 14.5 and 19.5pg/ml were bitter.
In Vitro Bitter Taste Evaluation of Microspheres
The drug release in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer was studied to evaluate taste masking. The drug release from Low molecular weight chitosan microspheres (drug-polymer ratio 1:1) and High molecular weight Chitosan microspheres (drug–polymer ratio 1:2) was less than the threshold bitterness value, i.e., 7.5μg/ml. The drug release for Pluronic F-127 microspheres was above the threshold value for all the drug– polymer ratios studied.
Infrared Spectroscopy studies
The FTIR spectrum of drug, polymer, drug and different drug: polymer ratio microspheres (PIRX: L.M.C, PIRX: H.M.C, PIRX: PLU-F-127) are showed in Fig. 1.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
The SEM micrographs of pure piroxicam, low molecular weight chitosan Microspheres, high molecular weight Chitosan Microspheres are depicted in Fig. 2.
In-vitro Drug Release
The drug release results are depicted in Table 4. The Low molecular weight chitosan and high molecular weight Chitosan microspheres passed the bitterness evaluation test; therefore, they were selected for drug-release study (Fig. 3).
DISCUSSIONS
The Tg of Pluronic F127 as provided by the manufacturer is 42°C so dichloromethane was selected as solvent with boiling point 36°C, i.e., lower than the Tg of pluronic F 127, whereas Tg of low and high molecular weight of Chitosan is between 152- 203°C,(14). Therefore, water and 1% glacial acetic acid were used as solvent for Low and High molecular weight Chitosan microspheres (Sohi, H. et al. 2004). The spray dried microspheres formulations collected and were free-flowing and white in color. The percentage yield of spray dried microspheres showed in table 4. Drug loading for the spray dried microspheres formulation was showed in Table 4. The threshold bitterness value lies in between 4.5 and 9.5μg/ml. Therefore, the piroxicam solutions of 5.5, 6.5, 7.5, and 8.5 μg/ml concentrations were prepared, and the same procedure was repeated. From Table 3, the bitter taste threshold value of piroxicam is 7.5μg/ml (Khan, S. et al. 2007). The microspheres were prepared with different drug to polymer ratios. The Low molecular weight exhibited excellent taste masking at drug–polymer ratio 1:1. Taste masking was also achieved at drug– polymer ratio 1:2 and 1:2.5. All the other ratios studied did not show taste masking as the drug release at pH 7.4 phosphate buffer was above the threshold bitterness value. This may be because of incomplete film formation by the Low molecular weight which fails to control the release of piroxicam at salivary pH. Chitosan is insoluble in alkali solutions at pH above 6. High molecular weight Chitosan exhibited taste masking at drug–polymer ratio 1:2 and 1:1.5 but taste masking was not achieved for other ratios (Khan, S. et al. 2007). The PIRX exhibited characteristic peaks at showed characteristic peaks in all the spectra‘s like –NH and –OH stretching which ties at 1385 cm-1 , 1635 or 1625 cm-1 (N-H-CO3 stretching vibration), 1525 cm-1 (secondary -NH2 stretching), 1440 cm-1 (CH3 AND Ar-c=c stretching), 1355 cm-1 (sym. –CH3) and 1155 and 1070 cm-1 or 1050-1070 cm-1 (-SO2-N-) 770 and 740 or 740 cm-1 ( Ortho-disubstituted phenyl). The Low molecular weight chitosan microspheres exhibited both the characteristic peaks of PIRX at 1385 and 1635cm−1 . High molecular weight Chitosan microspheres depicted no shift in both the characteristic peaks of PIRX. The results of IR reveal that there was no chemical interaction between drug and polymers. The microspheres prepared by spray drying were spherical in shape with small diameter in the range 4–11μm. The SEM images confirmed the uniformity and fine nature of the microspheres which contributed for rapid drug release from the microspheres. The low molecular weight chitosan microspheres (1:1 drug–polymer ratios) showed 53.34% release in 15 min, whereas high molecular weight Chitosan microspheres (1:2 drug–polymer ratio) depicted 39.57% release in 15 min. This could be due the spherical and uniform size of microspheres or increasing the wetability of microspheres. CONCLUSION Spray-dried microspheres of Low molecular weight chitosan and High molecular weight Chitosan depicted excellent taste-masking ability. Low molecular weight chitosan did not affect the drug release whereas high molecular weight Chitosan exhibited slight delay in drug release as compared to Low molecular weight chitosan, but the slight delay can be outweighed by the virtue benefit achieved of taste masking and better patient compliance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to IPCA labs, Mumbai, India for the gift sample of piroxicam, and Principal, J.S.S. College of Pharmacy, Mysore for providing facilities to carry out this work.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2180http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21801. Jacob, T. (2006). Taste—A brief tutorial by Tim Jacob, http://www.cf.ac. uk/biosi/staff/Jacob /teaching /sensory/taste.html, 23 Aug.
2. Romanov, R A and Kolesnikov, S. S. (2006). Electrophysiologically identified subpopulations of taste bud cells. Neurosci. Lett. 395:249–254.
3. Sohi, H. Khar, R. K. and Sultana, Y. (2004) Taste masking technologies in oral pharmaceuticals: recent developments and approaches. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 30:429–448.
4. Gao, Y. Cui, F. Guan, Y. Yang, L. Wang, Y and Zhang L. (2006),Preparation of roxithromycinpolymeric microspheres by the emulsion solvent diffusion method for taste masking. Int. J. Pharm. 318:62-69.
5. Shen, R. W. (1996), Taste masking of ibuprofen by fluid bed coating. US Patent 5, 55,152, September 3.
6. Lorenzo L. M., Kuna, M and Vila J. J. (1997), Development of microencapsulated form of Cefuroxime axetil using pH sensitive acrylic polyme
7. Khan, S. Katariya, S. P. Nakhat, S and Yeole, P. (2007), Taste masking of ondansetron hydrochloride by polymer carrier system and formulation of rapid disintegrating tablets. AAPS PharmsciTech. 8(2):E1–E7.
8. Manek, S. P and Kamat, V. S. (1981), Evaluation of Indion CRP-244 and CRP-254 as sustained release and taste masking agents. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 43(11–12):209–212.
9. Borodkin, S. (1971), Sundberg. Polycarboxylic acid ionexchange resin adsorbates for taste coverage in chewable tablets. J. Pharm. Sci. 60:1523–1527.
10. Sriwongjanya, M and Bodmeier, R. (1997), Entrapment of drug loaded ionexchange particles within polymer microparticles. Int. J. Pharm. 158:29– 38.
11. Szejtli, J and Szente, L. (2005), Elimination of bitter, distinguishing taste of drugs and foods by cyclodextrins. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 61:115-125.
12. Cox, E. H. Beal, S. L. Follet, C. V. Fuseau, E. Kenkare, S and Sheiner L. W. (1999), A population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis of repeated measures time-toevent pharmacodynamic Taste Masking 1163 responses: the antiemetic effect of ondansetron. J. Pharmacoknet. Biopharm. 27(6):635– 644.
13. Johnson, B. A. Cowen, P. J and Rue, j. (1993), Ondansetron and alcohol pharmacokinetis. Psychopharmacology. 112:145.
14. Rowe, R. C. Owen S. C and Sheskey, P. J. (2004), Handbook of Pharmaceutical excipients, 4th ed., KM Varghese Company, Mumbai.
15. Goula, A. M. Achilias, D. S. Adamopoulos, K. G and Karapantsios, M. D. (2008), Water sorption isotherms and glass transition temperature of spray dried tomato pulp. J. Food Sci. 85:78–83.
16. Albertini, B. Cavallari. Magarotto, L. Rodriguez, L. Passerini, C. N and Voinovich, d. (2004), Characterization and taste masking evaluation of acetaminophen granules: comparison between different preparation methods in a high shear mixer. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 21:295–303.
17. Chang, W. Chung, J. W. Chung, S. Kim, Y. and Kho, H. (2006), The relationship between phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and 6-npropylthiouracil (PROP) taster status and taste thresholds for sucrose and quinine. Arch. Oral Biol. 51:427–432.
18. The United Stated Pharmacopeia XXIII/National Formulary XVIII. US Pharmacopoeial convention, Rockville, MD, 1980:2800.
19. Bora. D. Borude P and Bhise K. (2008), Taste Masking by Spray-Drying Technique, AAPS PharmsciTech, 8: 1159- 1164.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyTHE EFFECT OF SPINDLE VIBRATION ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF WORKPIECE IN DRY TURNING
USING ANOVA
English1328S.Syath AbuthakeerEnglish P.V. MohanramEnglish G. Mohan KumarEnglishThere are remarkable forward strides in the manufacturing process with the tremendous technological innovations. In order to increase productivity, enhance quality and reduce cost, machine tool have to work free of any malfunction. Vibration responses are the proven measure of the malfunction. The main objective of this study is dedicated to the experimental vibration analysis of the spindle bearing assembly with self exited vibration. Experimental Modal analysis was carried out to obtain the natural frequency and vibration responses are investigated at various parametric levels and combinationsusing LabVIEW software. The parameters in the
investigation include feed, depth of cut, and cutting speed.Output parametris is surface finish and vibration level. Experimental data collected are tested with anlayis of variance(ANOVA) Taguchi design of experiments was used to optimize the process parameter for the responses,
surface roughness and vibration level. Regression model developed serves in prediction for the
responsesOn the completion of the experimental test ANOVA is used to validate the results.
EnglishSpindle bearing, modal analysis, Surface roughness profile, vibration, LabVIEW, ANOVA1. INTRODUCTION
Surface roughness is a commonly encountered problem in machined surfaces. It is defined as the finer irregularities of surface texture, which results from the inherent action of the production process. Consequently, surface roughness has a great influence on product quality, and the part functional properties such as lubricant retentivity, void volume, load bearing area, and frictional properties. Furthermore a good-quality machined surface significantly improves fatigue strength, corrosion resistance, and creep life[1]. Surface roughness is consisting of a multitude of apparently random peaks and valleys. When two rough surfaces are brought to be in contact, it is occurred in smaller area, which is called the real area of contact. This area is not only a function of the surface topography but also on the study of interfacial phenomena, such as friction and wears[2]. Surface finish plays an important role in affecting friction, wear, and lubrication of contacting bodies[3]. The effect of surface roughness on the lubricant film characteristics under conditions of combined normal and sliding motion [4]. Surface roughness is one of the parameters that greatly influence the friction under certain running conditions[5]. Surface roughness of the contacting surfaces influences the frictional properties of those surfaces during the forming processes [6]. It is clear now that surface roughness geometry strongly influences the manner in which the contacting surfaces are interacting. Furthermore, it is well known that the final geometry of surface roughness is influenced by various machining conditions such as spindle speed, feed, depth of cut, tool flank wear, and vibration level (chatter) [7]. One of the most significant factors affecting the performance of machine tools is chatter. Chatter not only limits productivity of cutting processes but also causes poor surface finish and reduced dimensional accuracy, increases the rate of tool wear, results in a noisy workplace and reduces the life of a machine tool. Several studies have been performed since the late 1950s regarding regenerative chatter [8, 9,10 and 11 ] These studies have led to a fundamental understanding of regeneration of waviness, or the overcutting of a machined surface by a vibrating cutter, as a feedback mechanism for the growth of selfexcited vibrations (or chatter). The study reveals, the larger the initial preload applied, the less vibration amplitudes are generated, and consequently less variation in the grinding depth of cut. As the initial preload increases, i.e., the stiffness of the bearing increases, the dominant frequencies of the system shift to higher values. As the preload increases up to a certain value, the peak to-peak amplitude decreases. Beyond this value the reduction in vibration amplitude is insignificant which indicates that larger values of preloading will not further reduce the vibration levels of the machine spindle. Therefore, this analysis can be used to calculate the optimum initial axial preload in order to obtain high accuracy for surface finish. The vibration levels of grinding machine spindle system increase significantly for grinding wheel wear rate percentage greater than 2, and decrease as the workpiece material hardness decreases [12] The tradeoff between preload, stifles and bearing life is exhibited. As the preload is increased, stiffness increases and the life of bearing decreases and as the preload decreases, stiffness is reduced and the machine tool performance is deteriorated. Vibration measurement serves as an effective tool for setting the preload during the assembly processes. There is no need to have a theoretical model as the required information can be obtain experimentally so that the method would not depend on the accuracy of a model. The frequency range investigated was around 1170 HZ[13] . The different component defects have their unique frequency, the amplitude denotes severity of the defect and the frequency reflects the source of the defect. Modern techniques for bearing diagnosis are directly applicable for machine tool. Gradual deterioration type of failure is suitable for machine condition monitoring, bearing failure is one example of the above mentioned failure type[14] . Self exited vibration domain is obtained through spectra of two accelerometers, one three axis accelerometer at the tool and the other accelerometer at the front bearing for displacement analysis of self exited vibration in turning. The cutting process of elastic machining system causes workpiece tool displacement that causes vibration, so resulting in modified chip size which reflects the dynamic instability. [15]. Today‘s manufacturing industry demands higher productivity with preserved or even smaller tolerances. The demand on high productivity leads to increased material removal per unit time and higher spindle speeds, increased feed rate, and greater depth of cut. However, at certain combinations of machining parameters; process instabilities and vibrations can occur which result in decreased accuracy, poorer surface finish, reduced tool life time and in the worst case spindle failure. Vibrations in milling have been investigated by many researchers using cutting force sensors, microphones and accelerometers. Although cutting force measurements may be addressed as the key information needed to be monitored, today‘s available force measuring platforms, dynamometers, are limited to relative small workpieces. Microphones are best suited for setting up thresholds based on experience or trials. The sound of a stable cutting process is usually calm and contains only frequencies originating from the spindle speed and the cutting teeth. However, microphones cannot give any information about deformations and forced vibrations. Since accelerometers easily be applied on the spindle bearing and measured the vibration level. Deterioration in the operation of a machine component gives rise to increasing in vibration level, mixing of vibration signals does not cause any loss of individual‘s frequency information. Vibration signature taken from appropriate location in machine tool can reveal the following defects: imbalance, misalignment, imperfect foundation, rubs, bearing defects, fault in belt drive etc. Piezoelectric transducer is lighter and has better frequency range for application, so the accelerometers are the best choice. The measures of the time based vibration analysis includes rms measurement, peak level (amount of impulse and bearing defect detection), crest factor, shock pulse, kurtosis (statistical movement of the probability density function of the vibration signal, phase. Trend analysis exhibits the rate of deterioration of vibration level in machine tool. The vibration reference standard is VDI 2056[16]. In this paper, a systematic procedure for measuring the vibration level of spindle bearing using LabVIEW software and optimize the machining parameters for possible improvement in the machining quality and vibration level. The vibration level was measured by using accelerometers and surface roughness values have been measured with a surface roughness tester (SE1200). The optimal values of the various machining parameters are determined through experimental investigation. The full factorial experimental design approach is utilized for experimental planning and ANOVA is employed to investigate the influence of machining parameters on the surface roughness and vibration level. The results obtained from the experimental study are utilized for analyzing and evaluating the effects of various input constraints at the optimal point. The effects of various constraints on the objective function are also analyzed through graphical picture. By using these graphs, significant effect of various input constraints on surface roughness and vibration level are highlighted. The selected optimal machining parameters and tits effectiveness are experimentally validated. The results obtained have shown the effectiveness of the proposed solution that have been analyzed and discussed in detail.
2. METHODOLOGY
The objective of the present work is to investigate the vibration response of the machine tool spindle at various operating conditions using Taguchi orthogonal array and develop a predicting bases for the responses: surface finish and vibration level.
The methodology adopted is presented in figure 1
The experimental setup is shown in figure 2 It includes a CNC -Galaxy –MIDAS-0 turning centre, a CCGT-09T30FL (Taegu Tec) turning insert, tool holder SCLC L2020 K09 T3(Taegu Tec), a work piece (Al 6063 aluminum, Diameter 38 mm x 70mm length) without any cutting fluid. Accelerometer is embedded on spindle bearing ( Bruel and Kjaer 9.88mV/g- type 4517). The accelerometer signals are taken to NI PXI 1042 – Q Data Acquisition Card system using LabVIEW software. The vibration data was captured by Data Acquisition Card system. This system included hardware selection, circuit design and implementation, hardware interface, circuit troubleshooting, filtering, computer software programming, system integration, and testing in real CNC turning processes. The following three sections describe the development of the hardware system, software system, and integrating and testing of the data acquisition system along with the vibration data analyses. Surface roughness was measured using surface roughness tester as shown in figure 3.
3.1 HARDWARE SYSTEM
Vibration signals are important for monitoring spindle bearing vibration in turning process for measuring vibration amplitude in terms of accelerations (mm/s2-levels). A computer code has been developed in LabVIEW for data acquisition, data storage and display. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) computation algorithm was included in the computer program to extract the vibration amplitude in the time and frequency domain, which will be explained in software development section. Accelerometers: Converts the physical acceleration into a voltage signal Signal conditioning circuit: Amplifies the voltage signal and improves the resolution Personal computer: Runs the program, stores and display at any desired instant of time.
3.2 SOFTWARE SYSTEM
The software in this system consists of the following components. An NC program that directs the CNC turning machine to cut the work piece. Vibration data analysis and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis Main objective of the research work is to monitor the vibration level spindle bearing. So it is assumed that the condition of the machine and its components is good in all other aspects such as foundation of the machine, rigidity of the machine components (such as bed, cutting tool , tail stock etc.) and so on. The simplest vibration analysis is conducted through collecting the ?overall? vibration amplitude Root Mean Square (RMS) value and plotting the vibration data in time domain and frequency domain. The ?overall? signal represents the total energy content of all vibration sources at all frequencies.
3.3 INTEGRATION AND TESTING OF THE DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
The Integration and testing of the data acquisition system is shown in figure 2.When tested in a machining workpiece, the sensor was protected to prevent any interference caused due to machining condition.
Any physical system can vibrate, the frequencies at which vibration naturally occurs, and the modal shapes which the vibrating system assumes are properties of the system, and can be determined using modal analysis. Modal analysis is frequently utilized to abstract the modal parameters of a system, including natural frequencies, mode shapes and modal damping ratio. Since these parameters depend only on the system itself but dominate the response of the system to excitations, modal analysis is the fundamental response analysis and has therefore gained increasing attentions. In the modal analysis, an impact hammer (PCB-086C03) was used to excite the spindle. An accelerometer was mounted on the spindle and interfaced with a data acquisition card and LabVIEW software to record the response of the spindle. The impact pulse indicating the magnitude of input force was generated by the impact hammer. The frequency domain response was obtained by using signal analyzer available in sound and vibration toolkit of Lab VIEW as shown in figure 4. From the figure 4, it is evident that, the fundamental natural frequency of the spindle is about 600Hz.
3.5 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
The vibration analysis was done under actual machining conditions. The accelerometer mounted in spindle was used to collect the vibration signals. The position of accelerometer is shown in the figure 5. The LabVIEW acquires the vibration signals and stored the signals continuously frame by frame at every stage of cutting in on-line. The dynamic response of accelerometer is given in table 1.
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Experimental design approach is selected for the investigations of varying three controllable parameters at three levels, since 3k factorial design is efficient to study the effects of two or more factors. Without loss of generality three levels of factor are referred as Low, Intermediate and High and levels are designed by digits 0,1 and 2. Each treatment combination in the 3k design is denoted by k digits where the first digit indicates a level of factorial A (cutting speed), B (depth of cut), indicates the level of factorial second and C (feed) indicates the level of three. These factors as well as their levels identified are given in table 2.
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The vibration phenomenon for various cutting parameters has been analyzed using LabVIEW software. The plan of the experiment was developed to assess the effect of cutting speed, feed rate and depth of the cut on the surface roughness value and vibration level. Table 1 illustrates the experimental result of surface roughness value and vibration level. One of the objectives of this study is to find the important factors and combination of factors influencing the vibration level using the lower the better characteristics. The experimental results were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), which is used for identifying the factors significantly affecting the performance measures. The results are analyzed with MINITAB software. The result of ANOVA analysis reflect that feed rate is the most contributing factor for the responses surface roughness and vibration level followed by cutting speed and depth of cut. According to the ANOVA response the best regression equation (1 and 2) obtained for surface finish and vibration level. The mean effect of the design factors on the surface finish and vibration is shown in table 3
The error rate of this model is calculated by using equation number 3. The percentage error associated with each experiment is observed to be lower and is well with the limit within a reasonable degree of approximation. Percentage of contribution of each parameter on surface finish and vibration level in terms of acceleration is shown in table 4
5.1 MAIN EFFECT, INTERACTION PLOT AND CONTOUR PLOT
The main effect plot and the interaction plots (between Depth of cut, Cutting speed, Feed rate and surface roughness value and vibration level have been shown in figure 6 to 13 . Figure 6 shows the main effect plot for surface finish value for various depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate, where the left side is for the cutting speed. It indicates that surface roughness decreases with increase of cutting speed and starts increasing , with increase of feed and has very low influence on the depth of cut since delta value is found to be very low.
5.2.1 INTERACTION PLOT
The interaction chart are plotted to visualize the effect of interaction within the factors. The interaction charts are presented in figure 7 for the responses surface finish. The parallel trends of the lines clearly show very little interaction between the factors and also reflect that the parallel trends of the lines clearly shows very little or no interaction between the two parameters.
5.2.2 CONTOUR PLOTS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Contour plot is shown in figure 8, it is a graphical technique used to explore the relationship between three variable on a single plot and to view combinations of x and y that produce desirable response value of surface roughness value.
5.2.3 SURFACE PLOTS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
The combined effect of depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate on surface roughness value can be assessed by drawing a 3-D Plot shown in figure 9. It can be observed from the plot that the effect of depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate on surface roughness is more pronounced 3 D plots have been plotted to investigate influence of two factors on the response. This is plotted for middle value. Surface finish tends to the minimum values when depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate is minimum.
5.3 MAIN EFFECT, INTERACTION PLOT AND CONTOUR PLOT- VIBRATION LEVEL
Figure 10 shows the main effect plot for vibration level for various cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate, where the left side is for the cutting speed. It indicates that vibration level increases with increase of cutting speed and starts increasing, with increase of feed and has very low influence on the depth of cut since delta value is found to be very low.
5.3.1 INTERACTION PLOT
The interaction chart are plotted to visualize the effect of interaction within the factors. The interaction charts are presented in figure 11 for the responses vibration level. The parallel trends of the lines clearly show very little interaction between the factors and also reflect that the parallel trends of the lines clearly shows very little or no interaction between the two parameters.
5.3.1CONTOUR PLOTS OF VIBRATION LEVEL
Contour plot is shown in figure 12, it is a graphical technique used to explore the relationship between three variable on a single plot and to view combinations of x and y that produce desirable response value of vibration level.
5.3.2 SURFACE PLOTS OF VIBRATION LEVEL
The combined effect of cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate on vibration can be assessed by drawing a 3-D Plot shown in figure13. It can be observed from the plot that the effect of cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate on vibration level is more pronounced 3 D plots have been plotted to investigate influence of two factors on the response. This is plotted for middle value. Vibration level tends to the minimum values when Depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate is minimum.
6. 0 CONCLUSIONS
In this course of study, Experiments were conducted on CNC lathe using CCGT- 0930FL carbide turning insert, machining variables such as surface finish value and spindle bearing vibration in were measured in CNC machining processes based on the vibration signal collected through a LabVIEW data acquisition system. The effect of cutting parameters such as cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate on machining variables is evaluated. Based on the current study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
- From the modal analysis the signals peaks exhibit response in a particular natural frequency range is 600 Hz
- It is observed that the natural frequency shifts away from the operating frequency thereby avoiding the resonance condition of spindle.
- The Fast Fourier Transform(FFT) function and its graphic display were integrated in to the software program developed by LabVIEW. Data were visualized in real-time
- The method presented effectively measure surface finish and vibration of spindle bearing. The goal of this research is successfully met.
- A multiple regression model has been developed and validated with experimental results.
- An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was made and it was found that the feed rate (89.77) , Cutting speed (9.36%) depth of cut (0.86% contribution), has greater influence on surface finish value. From the experimental results demonstrate that the feed rate and cutting speed are the main parameters among the three controllable factors (depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate) that influence the surface finish value of component.
- It was found that the feed rate (47.53%) , Cutting speed (46.14%) depth of cut (6.33%), has greater influence on vibration level
. From the experimental results demonstrate that the feed rate and cutting speed are the main parameters among the three controllable factors (depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate) that influence the vibration level .
- Contour plot shows the relationship between three variables on a single plot. It also helps in viewing combinations of x and y that produce desirable response values of surface finish and vibration level
. - Hence, this study helps to promote the operational use of ANOVA for land cover classification
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2181http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21811. Stark and Moon, 1999 G.A. Stark and K.S. Moon, Modeling of surface texture in the peripheral milling process, using neural network, spline, and fractal methods with evidence of Chaos, Trans. Of the ASME, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 121 (1999), pp. 251-256.
2. Bhushan, 1999 B. Bhushan, Handbook of Micro-Nano Tribology, CRC Press (1999).
3. Lee and Ren, 1996 S.C. Lee and N. Ren, Behavior of elastic-plastic rough surface contacts as affected by surface topography, load, and material hardness, Tribol. Trans. 39 (1) (1996), pp. 67-74.
4. Lundberg, 1995 J. Lundberg, Influence of surface roughness on normal-sliding lubrication, Tribol. Int. 28 (5) (1995), pp. 317-322.
5. Xiao Li et al., 2003 B. Xiao Li, G. Rosen, Naser Amini and H. Nilsson Per, A study on the effect of surface topography on rough friction in roller contact, J. Wear 254 (2003), pp. 1162- 1169.
6. Mahrenholtz et al., 2005 O. Mahrenholtz, N. Bontcheva and R. Iankov, Influence of surface roughness on friction during metal forming processes, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 159 (2005), pp. 9-16.
7. Selmy et al., 1989 A.I. Selmy, I. ElSonbaty, F. Shehata and U.A. Khashaba, Some factors affecting the accuracy of turned parts, Scientific Bulletin of the Faculty of Engineering vol. 24 (2), Ain Shams University, Egypt (1989) pp. 356-368.
8. S. Tobias and W. Fishwick, Theory of regenerative machine tool chatter, The Engineer February (1958).
9. J. Tlusty, M. Polacek, The stability of machine tools against self-excited vibrations in machining, in: Proceedingsof the ASME International Research in Production Engineering, Pittsburgh, USA, 1963, pp. 465-474.
10. H. Merritt, Theory of self-excited machine tool chatter, Transactions of ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry 87 (1965), pp. 447-454.
11. Y. Altintas and E. Budak, Analytical prediction of stability lobes in milling, CIRP Annals 44 (1995) (1), pp. 357 362.
12. Mohammed A. Alfares, Abdallah A and Elsharkawy (2003). Effects of axial preloading of angular contact ball bearings on the dynamics of a grinding machine spindle system. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 48- 59.
13. M.A. Mannan and B.J. Stone (1998). The use of vibratio measurement for quality controle of machine tool spindle. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 14: 889-893.
14. S. Saravanan, G.S. Yadava and P.V. Rao. (2006) Condition monitoring studies on spindle bearing of a lathe. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 28: 993-1005.
15. Claudiu F. Bisu, Philippe Darnis, Alain Gérard and Jean-Yves K'nevez. (2008) Displacements analysis of self-excited vibrations in turning. Int J Adv Manuf Technol, pp 126-135.
16. K N GUPTA (1997). Vibration - A tool for machine diagnostics and condition Monitoring. Sadhana, Vol. 22, Part 3, pp. 393-410.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareA RARE ANATOMICAL VARIANT OF THE EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY
English2933Takkallapalli AnithaEnglish Neelee JayasreeEnglish Krishnamurthy AshaEnglish Dattatray DombeEnglishDuring routine dissections in the lab, the position of external carotid artery [ECA] and internal carotid
artery [ICA] were found to be mutually displaced. ECA was formed and coursed antero-laterally while ICA formed and coursed postero-medially, in one cadaver on the right side out of 50 cadavers dissected. Though rare, such variations must be given utmost importance before planning for any neck surgeries to avoid post operative complications.
EnglishExternal carotid artery, variation, positionINTRODUCTION
Common carotid artery [CCA], internal carotid artery [ICA] and external carotid artery [ECA] provide the major source of blood to the head and neck. Normally right common carotid artery is a branch of brachiocephalic trunk formed at the level of sterno- clavicular joint. The artery courses vertically upwards in the carotid sheath to the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx which also corresponds to C3, C4 inter vertebral disc. The CCA terminates into external and internal carotid arteries. At their origin in carotid triangle ECA and ICA are normally situated anteromedially and posterolaterally respectively. External carotid artery extends from the level of upper border of the lamina of thyroid cartilage, ascends slightly forwards and inclines posteriorly and laterally, to pass midway between tip of mastoid process and angle of mandible. In the substance of parotid gland, behind the neck of mandible, it divides into its terminal branches, the superficial temporal and maxillary arteries. In the carotid triangle, the ECA gives five branches namely superior thyroid artery, lingual artery, facial artery, occipital artery and ascending pharyngeal artery. ICA ascends vertically upwards without giving any branch to enter into the lower opening of carotid canal at the base of the skull. The variations of CCA bifurcation and position of its terminal branches, ECA and ICA have been described by few anatomists though it is of utmost importance to know this rare position of ECA, to avoid unnecessary complications during carotid end-arterectomy.
METHODOLOGY
The present study was conducted in the department of anatomy at Chalmeda Anandrao Institute of Medical Sciences. The study period was one year from 1st January 2010 to 31st December 2010. Fifty cadavers who were dissected in the department during routine dissection process were included in the study. The dissection was carried out as per Cunningham‘s manual. Observations are mainly carried out for the placement of ECA and ICA ande the findings were noted down.
RESULTS
Anterolateral position of ECA on right side was found in one cadaver out of 50 cadavers dissected [2%]. The route of same variant artery found in an approximately 50 year male cadaver is given below:-
[a] Normal bifurcation of right CCA at the level of upper border of lamina of thyroid cartilage where it terminated into external carotid and internal carotid arteries.
[b] The formation and initial course of right ECA and right ICA differed from the normal pattern i.e. ECA was situated anterolateraly and ICA was situated posteromedially [Figure-1].
[c] The anterior branches of ECA, the superior thyroid artery, lingual artery and facial artery crossed ICA to reach their destination and this is the cause for their increased length and course [Figure-1]. [d] The ICA on the right side was postero medial and normal in its course.
DISCUSSION
We observed this rare positional variation only on right side, where ECA was anterolateral and ICA was posteromedial. As per the available literature, Handa et al [1] mentioned that the first description of the lateral position of the ECA was reported by an anatomist Hyrtl in 1841.He described that medial or lateral ECA migration during embryogenesis may be responsible for this anatomical variation, Handa et al explained that, this variation may be age related, secondary to elongation and tortuosity of atherosclerotic carotid arteries. Prendes et al [2] observed an anatomic variant for the position of ECA at the carotid bifurcation in 5.3% of patients investigated by Doppler ultrasound and contrast angiography. In his study, ECA was posterolateral to the ICA. Ueda S et al [3], reported an unusual case of peripheral hypoglossal nerve palsy caused by lateral position of the ECA and with an abnormally high position of bifurcation of CCA. The patient improved after cutting and ligation of ECA at its origin, which is due to compensatory dilatation of anastomotic arteries. Bergman et al [4] explained that:-[a] The ECA may be absent unilaterally or bilaterally. [b] When unilaterally absent, the branches, usually derived from it, arose from the CCA or from the contralateral vessel through anastomosis. [c] The artery may be located superficially and run lateral to the stylohyoid muscle or between the posterior belly of digstric muscle and the stylohyoid. J.P. Trigaux et al [5] performed intravenous digital subtraction angiography to determine the positional variations of the common carotid bifurcation and course of ECA and ICA in 100 consecutive patients with clinically suspected arteriosclerotic diseases. They observed [a] the position [97/200; 46.5%] of the ECA was anteromedial to the ICA. [b] Position of the ECA anterolateral to ICA was noted in 20/200 [13%]. [c] But the anatomical variant was more common on the right [21/100 than on the left [5/100].
According to Bussaka et al [6], lateral position of ECA is seen in 17 cases [4.3%] of which 13 cases were on the right side and 4 cases on the left. They expressed that it is necessary know this rare position of ECA, to avoid unnecessary complications during carotid endarterectomy. They emphasized that it is very important to ensure that the artery being ligated is ECA rather than ICA, as ligation of the latter cause‘s high risk of hemiparesis. MC Rusu et al [7] observed during dissections, a rare anatomical unilateral variant in the right carotid triangle of a adult male. They observed that the CCA on right side bifurcated slightly above the normal level, but the ECA was posterolateral to the ICA and its anterior branches initially crossed anterior to the ICA before continuing with a normal anatomical course. M.A Bailey et al [8] observed that. [a] In 2 cadavers [ aged 82 and 83] Right ECA was lateral. [b] The superior thyroid, lingual and facial arteries coursed medially, and partially obscured the ICA thus potentially limiting surgical access to the vessel. [c] They stated that when this anomaly is encountered during carotid endarterectomy initial recognition is crucial in order to preserve the hypoglossal and internal laryngeal nerves during ICA exposure. They expressed that this problem can be facilitated by circumferential ECA dissection and medial mobilization to reveal the lateral surface of the ICA. [d] They stressed that, the vagus nerve, located deep to the ECA, must also be identified and preserved while performing any neck surgery. Jasmin Delic et al [9] investigated the mutual relation of the initial parts of the ICA and ECA, as well as the height of crossing these blood vessels. They evaluated 50 patients by using magnetic resonance imaging of the neck and observed that [a] ECA is placed medially and coursed anterior to the ICA in 90% of cases. [b]In 7% of cases the right ECA was placed lateral to the ICA. [c] The ICA and ECA crossed approximately 3.04 cm above the bifurcation (at right 3.05 cm and at left 3.12 cm) and the height of the crossing varies from 1.3cm to 4.2cm (at right 1.3cim to 4.2cm, and the left 1.5cm to 4.1cm). [d] The height of crossing is symmetric in 18% of cases. They explained that the inversed disposition of the ICA and ECA must be held in mind while performing arterial ligatures in the carotid triangle, to avoid damage to the ICA and haemorrhagic accidents.
CONCLUSION
Our observation of anterolateral position was in one cadaver out of 50 present on right side [2%]. Though rare, positional variation of ECA and its branches must be observed by every surgeon while performing any surgery in neck. Prior angiographic and USG observation will be helpful for a proper planning of surgery and for better prognosis.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2182http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21821. Handa J, Matsuda M, Handa H. Lateral position of the external carotid artery, report of a case, Radiology 1972 ; 102 ; 361 - 2
2. Prendes JL, Mckinney
WM, Buonanno FS, Jones AM, Anatomic variations of the carotid bifurcation affecting Doppler scan interpretation J. Clin. Ultrasound 1980; 8: 147 - 50
3. Ueda S, Kohyama Y, Takase K; peripheral hypoglossal nerve palsy caused by lateral position of external carotid artery by an abnormally high position of bifurcation of the external and internal carotid arteries, a case report stroke 1984; 15 : 736 - 9.
4. Bergman RA, Thomson SA, Afifi AK, Saadeh FA, compendium of human anatomicvariations, Urban and Schwarzenberg, Baltimore-Munich 65, 1988.
5. J.P. Trigaux, MD, F.Delchambre, MD and B.Van Beers MD, Anatomical variations of the Carotid bifurcation: implications for digital subtraction angiography and ultrasonography, The British Journal of Radiology, 1990, 63, 181-185.
6. Bussaka H, Sato N, Oguni T, Korogi M, Yamashita Y, Takahashi.M, Lateral position of external carotid artery G. Rhinso Hoshasen 1990; 35 : 1061 - 3.
7. M. C. Rusu, A. Vasilescu and V. Nimigean published Elsevier Ltd. Volume 35, issue 11, Novemeber 2006, pages 1066 - 1067.
8. M.A. Bailey, D.J.A. Scott, R.G. Tunstall, M.J. Gough Lateral External Carotid Artery: Implications for vascular surgeon. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery 2007, Vol. 34, Issue 4, Page 492.
9. Jasmin Delic, Alma Bajtaveric, Eldar Isakavic : positional variations of the external and internal carotid artery 2010 Acta medica Saliniana.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyPERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF TCP VARIANTS OVER MANET: IMPROVING RELIABILITY OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS
English3445Mueen UddinEnglish Aziazah Abdul RahmanEnglishThe need of reliable communication, where no data loss, no duplication and no out of order delivery occurs becomes a vital necessity of most application programs in all networks. Transmission control protocol provides error free reliable communication for wired networks. The decision of deployin transmission control protocol in ad hoc network becomes difficult due to the availability of its different variants with Mobile Ad hoc Network routing protocols especially when mobility is an issue. This paper analyzes the advanced and sophisticated transmission control protocol Variants with Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector routing protocol to measure different parameters required for reliable communication such as the finest performance of packets delivery rate, average end-toend delay, and packet dropping. Finally from various differentiable results, an enhanced combination of transmission control protocol variant Vegas and Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector routing protocol will be chosen and refined to achieve desirable output. The refinement proves to be the
better solution of deployable protocols of Transmission Control Protocol in Mobile Ad hoc Network with decidedly mobile environment.
EnglishMobile Ad hoc Networks; Transmission Control Protocol Variants; Proactive and Reactive Protocols; Network Simulator, Reliability.1. INTRODUCTION
The glory of communication seems new but actually surrounded by different evolution eras. There were different transformations and trends evolved for the optimization and enhancements of communication styles. Enormous approaches were adopted and became obsolete from time to time as the new technological revolutions had set the communication parameters up-to-date. The whole phenomenon of communication process signifies the importance of reliable and unfailing transportation of data and information from source (sender) to destination (receiver). In this concern of intact data transportation much development of protocols and their improvements yield very progressive results. These results proved the efficient transmission and the reception of intact and undamaged data. Today‘s Information Technology era is working to provide ease and simplicity of procedures intended for the consumers in communication arena. The mobile phone technology is becoming an essential part of life and is accessible to almost everyone. Wireless networks are categorized into structured and non structured networks. Mobile phone technology falls in structured wireless networks, and they require an infrastructure like base stations, transducers, and other intermediate devices for the creation of networks. The other category of wireless networks is unstructured or sometimes called ad hoc wireless networks, being very popular now a day. This paper focuses on how information can be transmitted reliably and timely through wireless ad hoc networks using transmission control protocol Variants as these networks are build-on without relying upon any infrastructure. Reliability is an important issue to be discussed in this paper and will be analyzed by applying different transmission control protocol variants with Mobile Ad hoc Networks to provide a secure, efficient and reliable mechanism for the transmission of packets across the network. To resolve the problem of reliability certain protocols were discussed and in consequence, transmission control protocol was developed with the true answer of reliability in any mode of communication‘s transportation [28]. Due to ease of node such as laptops and palmtops mobility, connections creation and failure are considered as problems between nodes in ad hoc networks and can be resolved by their internal routing protocols. Heavy traffic of data segments between nodes may lead to congestion problems and hence to the reliability of data being transmitted, and this issue is considered as a major issue in data communication and transportation [21]. Transmission control protocol is not well suited for wireless networks since it was developed for wired networks, due to the heavy packet and connection losses especially in Mobile Ad hoc Networks, the performance of transmission control protocol degrades significantly [22]. To overcome these issue and problems, different versions of transmission control protocol called variants were developed especially for wireless ad hoc networks to provide reliable communication. Although there are various routing protocols for route configurations in Mobile Ad hoc Network are available [23], but the problem is the selection of suitable coupling and pairing of transmission control protocol variants and Mobile Ad hoc Network routing protocols to work efficiently altogether to provide a reliable communication.
2. PROBLEM DEFINITION
Transmission control protocol is a reliable and mostly used protocol developed initially for wired networks and performed well in its respective environment [6], but current trends are making a shift from wired to wireless world. Since wireless communication is a lossy in nature and therefore typical transmission control protocol is not well suited in this situation and may cause unwanted delays and packet loss which makes the communication unreliable and erroneous. Another protocol called User Datagram Protocol is being used which performs well in the wireless environments providing error free communication with very low delays [6]. User Datagram Protocol is mostly used in wireless streaming communications, where delays are not affordable instead packet dropping or loss is acceptable than delaying hence reliable communication is not achieved [22]. This paper focuses on reliability as it is achieved through transmission control protocol, so the major concern of this research will be the selection of transmission control protocol variants with Mobile Ad hoc Network routing Protocols to achieve reliability. Interestingly, how this protocol behaves in Mobile Ad hoc Network environment where there are no mobility constraints on nodes. To answer this question, certain related facts need to be pondered, like selection of different transmission control protocol variants, their advantages and disadvantages in collaboration with their corresponding Mobile Ad hoc Network routing protocols and quality of service.
3. RELATED WORK
The related work with the same distinction could be found on the comparison of different transmission control protocol variants with Mobile Ad hoc Network routing protocols in [15, 30]. Several schemes have been proposed to alleviate the effects of non congestion related losses on transmission control protocol performance over networks that have wireless or similar high loss links [14, 28]. Many techniques choose from a variety of mechanisms, such as local retransmissions, split transmission control protocol connections, and forward error correction, to improve end-to-end throughput [25]. The most common problem found in major studies was related with the inability of transmission control protocol to differentiate between link failure and congestion. Beside this, various studies have discussed different comparable scenarios like: energy consumption, static nodes nature, and others in Transmission Control Protocol and Mobile Ad hoc Network environments. But this paper specifically focuses on the mobility in the Mobile Ad hoc Networks. The performance of transmission control protocol will be judged on the basis of random mobility.
4. MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks are self configured infrastructure less networks formed and deformed abruptly [2]. They cover an extent of applications in multi-hop scenarios, such as in locations of conferencing, hospital, battlefield, rescue, and even home. Their topology is selforganized, dynamic, and decentralized [5]. The network formation depends on the existence of mobile hosts; some of these mobile hosts are willing to forward packets for their neighbours. These networks have no fixed routers; every node could acts as router. All nodes are capable of moving and can be connected dynamically in an arbitrary manner [7]. The responsibilities for organizing and controlling the network are distributed among the terminal themselves. There is no intermediate device required in between the nodes to establish or form a network. Hence the nodes with the help of each other can establish a network and start communication. In this type of network, some pairs of terminals may not be able to communicate directly with each other and have to rely on some other terminals so that the messages are delivered to their destinations. Such networks are often referred to as multi-hop or store-and-forward networks. The nodes of these networks function as routers, which discover and maintain routes to other nodes in the networks. The clarification of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks with transmission control protocol variants is highly structured and discussed in [2, 15, and 16].
4.1 Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Network: The routing infrastructure in Mobile Ad hoc Networks should be established in a distributed, self-organized way to overcome the issues of node mobility. Different routing protocols have been proposed along with some evaluating work already been done. These protocols are majorly classified into two main categories as Proactive and Reactive [23].
4.1.1 Proactive Routing Protocols: The primary characteristic of proactive approach is that each node in the network maintains a route to every other node in the network all the time [23]. Route creation and maintenance is accomplished through some combination of periodic and event-triggered routing updates. Periodic updates and checking consist of routing information exchanges between nodes at set time intervals. The updates occur at specific intervals, regardless of the mobility and traffic characteristics of the network.
4.1.2 Reactive Routing Protocols: Reactive routing techniques, also called as on-demand routing [2]. Here instead of maintaining the routes periodically, route only maintained when needed by nodes at the time of transmission [23]. Link connectivity can change frequently in ad hoc networks and control overhead is costly. Routes are only discovered when they are actually needed. When a source node needs to send data packets to some destination, it checks its route table to determine whether it has a route; If no route exists, it performs a route discovery i.e. checks available routes from source to destination to find a suitable path to the destination hence, route discovery becomes on-demand. The route discovery typically consists of the network-wide flooding of a request message.
5. PROPOSED WORK
This paper focuses on Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector routing protocol as a reactive routing protocol for performing different simulation scenarios with various selected and supported transmission control protocol variants to prove an error free and reliable communication. The Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector routing protocol is intended for use by mobile nodes in an ad hoc network [24]. It offers quick adaptation to dynamic link conditions, low processing and memory overhead, low network utilization, and determines unicast routes to destinations within the ad hoc network. This algorithm enables dynamic, self-starting, multihop routing between participating mobile nodes wishing to establish and maintain an ad hoc network [23, 32]. It allows mobile nodes to obtain routes quickly for new destinations, and does not require nodes to maintain routes to destinations that are not in active communication. Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector routing protocol allows mobile nodes to respond to link breakages and changes in the network topology in a timely manner. When a link is broken due to some erroneous condition, it notifies the affected set of nodes so that they may invalidate the routes using the lost link [2].
6. METHODOLOGY
Network Simulator 2 will be used for performing simulations using different parameters considering mobility. It is a discrete event simulator targeted at most of the networking research [32]. There are various simulation components used by Network Simulator to establish special and diverse simulation scenarios. Among these components most common and important are:
Nodes are the "hardware entities" in a network environment.
Agents are "software entities" dependant on nodes like transmission control protocol and user datagram protocol.
Links are used to connect the nodes in the network. Links can be of two types:
I. Simplex can forward packets in one direction only.
II. Duplex can forward and receive packets simultaneously i.e. it can operate in both directions at the same time.
Traffic generators are the specified nodes which are:
I. Source is an agent which is the originator of packets.
II. Sink is another agent which is the destination for the source packets.
6.1 Simulation Operations: The simulation operations performed by the Network Simulator -2 after employing the components can be broadly categorized as follow:
Creating the event scheduler: in this operation different event related activities are being done, like create scheduler, schedule events and start scheduler.
Creating network: in this operation the required nodes with their linkage and queuing operations are created.
Creating connection: in this operation the actual connection scheme transmission control protocol is given.
Creating traffic: in this operation traffic flow is being mentioned i.e. how much traffic is needed for the simulated network. The common traffic creation criterion is Constant Bit Rate where constantly bits of traffic are supplied to the network.
Tracing: this is the crucial operation which reads the simulation generated output file and shows different output results in form of text or graph.
6.2 Procedural Work Flow:
The objective of the research is to analyze transmission control protocol variants such as New-Reno, Sack, and Vegas over Mobile Ad hoc Network routing protocol Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector routing protocol within a mobile environment. The analyses of these protocols are done by mean simulations which required Tool Command Language scripts. This script is an input file to Network Simulator and it contains different operations like scheduling, networking, connecting, and traffic and mobility parameters [32]. The script along with other files like traffic and mobility in conjunction will complete the particular simulation. Since traffic is not an issue of this research and so it is kept constant. The mobility is the major consideration and mobility files with different pause times are required for the particular set of simulation accordingly. All these mobility files are defined herein with definite parameters such as number of mobile nodes, area of simulation, time of simulation, and pause time in between nodes mobility. To identify an efficient and supported protocol set in Mobile Ad hoc Networks, each selected variant of transmission control protocol like New Reno, Sack and Vegas with common Mobile Ad hoc Network routing protocol will be specified in their respective Tool Command Language script. These script files will be further associated with traffic and mobility files and simulated by network simulator to generate an output file for every script file called trace files. The separate script file is processed with simulator that is being compiled by routing protocol. The simulator after processing each file will generate two different files. One for animation which is called network animator (NAM) and another for tracing output, called trace file. The network animator file consists of all the animated operations like nodes movement, connection establishment with data transfer, packets dropping, and overall nodes performance presented at the time of simulation. It also comprises of all the positioning and graphical information with their respective parameters. The trace file contains all the data statistics such as how many packets are sent, received, dropped and with what sequence number, their types, and sizes. The trace file is simply a log file of particular simulation with all the information logged in it. After getting the trace files, the ultimate task is to analyze those trace files and fetch the required information accordingly. There are various analyzing methods available, notably, PERL (Practical Extraction and Reporting Language), AWK (named after their writers, Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and Brian Kernighan) and some text search software. This research work uses AWK scripts coding to analyze the trace files. The reasons for selecting these scripting is that, it contains simple c-language type coding with easy to use semantic statements for extracting and comparing the required parameters from the script files. AWK scripts can also be helpful in different calculations like throughput, packets dropping, and end-to-end delay. As soon as all the required information is fetched and calculated, the results can be displayed as an output and can also represented by graphs.
7. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS
7.1 Simulation Parameters:
To perform the simulations in a manner to achieve the desired results, the simulation model was set that comprises of 50 mobile nodes with 10 connections in between them. These connections could be form and deform on ad hoc basis. The total time duration of every simulation is set to 700 seconds. Though this simulation time makes lengthy analysis but it is considered sufficient in correspondence with mobile nodes in wireless simulation. The boundary area for simulation is set to 1000 meters x 800 meters which is again a standard form for wireless simulations. Data packets can be exchanged between the nodes as they traverse within the hearing range of one another. The traversing speed is set to 20 meters/sec. As nodes move away due to mobility, link breaks and connection deformation occurred. In this situation, packets start getting dropped until Ad hoc On-demand distance vector routing protocol discovers any other suitable path(s). These common parameters applied to each simulation of different pause times. Pause times are required to hold the nodes when they reach at some particular position for specified time. The specified pause times selected for these simulations are: 10, 100, 250, 450, and 700 seconds for each three selected transmission control protocol variants. Each pause time scenario further contains seven different randomized generated mobility criteria for creating random positions of nodes. As a result, 35 trace files are generated for each transmission control protocol variant with total of 105 simulations. The tabulated forms of this description are concisely mentioned in Tables 1 through 4.
The common variables used for simulation purpose are simulation time, topology size, and mobile nodes. Mobile nodes demonstrate their operations in relation with the assigned values of parameters. The other factor is related with the demonstration area. The area of analyzing mobile nodes is specified by the provided region as a topology size which could be in x-axis and y-axis.
7.3 Simulation Results: The results generated after performing simulations with different parameters in trace files were analyzed with the help of AWK script. The comparable values in parameters are:
Packet Delivery
Rate Average End-to-End Delay
Total Packets Dropped
7.3.1 Packet Delivery Rate:
Packet delivery rate refers to the number of packets received by the destination at any particular time. Since this research concerns with transmission control protocol type of traffic, so the receptions of transmission control protocol are involved in the result. On analyzing the graph of packet delivery rate, results are shown in a close range of values i.e. 48.80% to 49.60%. The reason for this partial percentage values is the number of connection with respect to mobile nodes. In one perspective the given values could be thought at a constant linear rate; but in critical analysis, Vegas is continuously changing its delivery rate in an incremental structure from pause time 10 to 450. At pause time 700 where there is no mobility and nodes are in static position, delivery rate of packets suddenly slow down. The same case continues with New Reno and SACK having second and third place of performance respectively. The reason for delivery rate‘s decrement at pause time 700 is due to the absence of mobility in nodes. Hence, if no connection establishes in between source and destination for some particular time then there will be no increase in the delivery rate. The other point to ponder here is linked with the close values in percentage between all the transmission control protocol variants. This is because of the reliable nature of transmission control protocol and ts congestion control mechanism. The other important point is the convergence of protocol values at the same point when there is no mobility. This convergence fact again leads to the betterment of Vegas in different mobile scenarios than New Reno and SACK. But when there is no mobile environment, performance of all transmission control protocol variants is same.
7.3.2 Average End-to-End Delay:
The average end-to-end delay is defined as an estimated time required in sending packets from source node to the destination node. It is also defined as how much time it takes by packet to move from the sending node to the receiving node. The averaged results show that Vegas has very low and constant delay factor in comparison with New Reno and SACK at different pause times. The reason for this constant delay by Vegas is because of its better estimation approach and also its capability to detect any congestion in advance. Vegas attempts to keep the sending rate around a point estimated by the RTT samples. The idea is that if we increase the sending rate, and the RTT does not increase. However, if the RTT increases as we increase the sending rate, then we are not getting more bandwidth and instead are just taking up more space in the queues of intermediate than necessary [19]. The other variants such as New Reno and SACK have high delay factor and increases from one pause time to other, this delay factor is increased when nodes are at static position and no mobility is there.
7.3.3 Total Packets Dropped:
The final evaluation aspect of this research is packet dropping. Wireless is a loose environment and especially Mobile Ad hoc Networks, where connection formation and deformation is usually more common. Packet dropping refers to the loss of packet due to connection unavailability or nodes are not in the range of each other. The graph shows low packet dropping with Vegas and Ad hoc On Demand Vector than other counterparts. The other thing to be noted is the level of dropping. The graph show high dropping when there is high mobility in all selected transmission control protocol variants and Ad hoc On Demand Vector, but have very nearer values of packets drop when nodes have no mobility i.e. they are on static positions. In all cases, the results are in favor of transmission control protocol Vegas better performance with Ad hoc On Demand Vector.
8. ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
The graphical results obtained after rigorous simulations through Network Simulator-2 at different mobility scenarios with different parameters were analyzed using AWK scripts. The outcomes from these trace files show the clear and apparent comparison of transmission control protocol variants with Ad hoc On Demand Vector routing protocol. It has been noticed at different pause time intervals that the overall performance of Vegas with Ad hoc On Demand Vector routing protocol is more efficient. Transmission control protocol Vegas perform much better when detecting congestion due to its dominant congestion control algorithm which enables to infer congestion and/or any link failure before occurrence of such conditions as compare to other transmission control protocol variants. Vegas estimation approach is also much better as it calculates the round trip time (RTT) of each transmitted packet. If there is major difference in between any transmission of round trip time packets, then Vegas use congestion avoidance algorithm to get early cautious and prepare for session throttling. With these and many other advantages discussed earlier Vegas really shows a better performance in Mobile Ad hoc Network environment of mobility scenario than the other two standardized variants frequently implemented in wired networks. The overall performance of results as shown in appendix A is further being analyzed with -Weighted Evaluation Matrix? [1]. The evaluated results from this weighing matrix are shown in Table 5.
In the evaluation procedure, the weighting factor is assigned to each criterion. The value of this factor is set to ?5‘ for the entire considered criteria such as packet delivery rate, average end-to-end delay, and packets dropped. There is a quantitative rating to each qualitative value such as: poor, fair, good, very-good, excellent. These qualitative values again have their numerical values of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 respectively. The assignment of these values is done by characterizing the overall performance of results according to their output levels. After the weights are assigned to each category, calculations are performed. In calculation, the rating assigned from the results shown in Appendix A to each criterion of individual protocol set would be exploited. The weighing factors are multiplied with their corresponding assigned ratings to determine the operation score. At the end of each score, summation is performed to get the total result of every individual protocol pair (transmission control protocol and Ad hoc On Demand Vector). The pair with their scores in total will be assigned the ranking accordingly. The Weighted Evaluation Matrix comparatively demonstrates the analyzed results. The evaluated results in Table 5 visibly specify that Vegas have the highest score of ?70‘ on its performance. Secondly, New Reno was quarterly less than Vegas with the score of ?50'. Lastly, SACK has secured ?45' which is nearly half of the Vegas. Consequently in this study with certain protocol combinations, transmission control protocol Vegas has definitely better outcome in various scenarios of Mobile Ad hoc Network with mobility than New Reno and Sack.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
In this paper the performance of different transmission control Protocol variants with Ad hoc On Demand Vector routing protocols was discussed and argued on the basis of simulations and their results. The extensive and rigorous simulations under a range of various operative parameters of mobility were performed. The ultimate outcomes of the analyzed results have proved clearly the suitable simulation of the required protocols combination. The preferable combination of protocols with this study comprises of transmission control Protocol variant Vegas with Ad hoc On Demand Vector routing protocol. In comparison with the results of other studies performed in different simulation scenarios, Vegas always have an above average performance. The overall highest score according to the evaluation method of this study is ?70?, and it was obtained by Vegas. The future work could be conducted with the analysis of Mobile Ad hoc Network environment under different quality of service issues like nodes energy consumptions, issues of hidden and exposed terminal, and constraints in mobility and traffic criteria. Also due to the unavailability of transmission control protocol Westwood in Network Simulator 2, it was not included in the simulation process and in analysis study. Though, researchers are working on the availability of Westwood in Network Simulator 2, downloading periodically updated manual available at [32] could be helpful in this regard and in future analyses considerations
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2183http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21831. AWAD, E.M., (1993) System Analysis and Design, Galgotia Publications (P) Ltd, 524 pp
2. BASAGNI, S., CONTI, M., GIORDANO, S., and IVAN, G., (2004) Mobile Ad Hoc Networking, IEEE Press, 480 pp
3. B. JYE CHANG, S. YU, LIN, Y. HSIN and LIANG; TCP Taichung: a RTT-based predictive bandwidth based with optimal shrink factor for TCP congestion control in heterogeneous wired and wireless networks, Proceedings of international conference on Embedded and ubiquitous computing, December, 2007
4. BRAKMO, S.L., O‘MALLEY, W.S., and PETERSON, L.L. (1998) TCP Vegas: New Techniques for Congestion Detection and Avoidance. Department of Computer Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
5. CHEN, T.S., CHIH, Y.C., and YUH, S.C. (2005) Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks Journal of Internet Technology, Vol. 6, No. 1
6. COMER, D.E., (2001) Computer Networks and Internet with Internet applications, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, 683 pp
7. COMPUTER MAGAZINE, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE) Press. Issue February 2004
8. FLOYD, S., HENDERSON, T., and GURTOY, A. (2004) The NewReno Modification to TCP‘s Fast Recovery Algorithm. Request for Comments: 3782
9. FOROUZAN, B.A., (2000) Data Communications and Networking, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 908 pp
10. GERLA, M. (2004) Official web site of High Performance Internet http://www.cs.ucla.edu/NRL/hpi/, accessed n 17-6-2006.
11. GRIECO, L.A., and MASCOLO, S. (2004) Performance Evaluation and Comparison of Westwood+, New Reno, and Vegas TCP Congestion Control. Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica ed Elettronica, Politecnico di Bari, Italy
12. HALDAR, P. (2002) Wireless World in NS. USC/ISI. http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/nstutorial/tutorial-02, accessed 8-6-2002.
13. HENGARTNER, U., BOLLIGER, J., and GROSS, T. (2000) TCP Vegas Revisited.Departement Informatik, ETH Z¨urich, CH 8092 Z¨urich
14. H. BALAKRISHNAN, S. SESHAN, AND R. H. KATZ, -Improving reliable transport and handoff performance in cellular wireless networks,? ACM Wireless Networks, vol. 1, Dec. 1995
15. HOLLAND, G., and VAIDYA, N. (2002) Analysis of TCP Performance over Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. DCS, Texas Aand M, College Station, TX, and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA, respectively
16. IETF MANET GROUP: http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/manetcharter.html, accessed on 23-4-2006.
17. JACOBSON, V. (1990) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Congestion Control. Request for Comments: 2581
18. JENS-PETER REDLICH (2004). System Architecture Group. Computer Science Department Humboldt University Berlin/Germany http://sar.informatik.huberlin.de/teaching/_previous-years/2004- w%20Ad-Hoc%20Networks/presentations /021-NetworkSimulator_ns2.pdf accessed on 12-3-2006.
19. JONG, S.A., PETER, B.D., ZHEN, L., and LIMIN, Y. (1995) Evaluation of TCP Vegas: Emulation and Experiment Computer Science Department, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
20. JEONGHOON, M., RICHARD J.L., VENKAT, A., and JEAN, W. (1998) Analysis and Comparison of TCP Reno and Vegas, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of CaliFornia at Berkeley
21. KAZI, W. (2005) GATEWAY SELECTION BASED ON GATEWAY LOAD IN AD HOC INFRASTRUCTURED ENVIRONMENT. MS thesis, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
22. KUROSE, J.F., and ROSS, K.W. (2004) Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring The Internet, 3rd ed., Addison Wesley, 821 pp
23. LANG, D. (2003) A Comprehensive Overview About Selected Ad Hoc Networking Routing Protocols, DCS, Technische Uni. Munich, Germany, pp. 47
24. PERKINS, C., BELDING, E., and DAS, S. (2003) Ad hoc On- Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Routing. Request for Comments: 3561
25. R. Yavatkar and N. Bhagwat, -Improving end-to-end performance of TCP over mobile internetworks? in Mobile 94 Workshop Mobile Computing Syst. Appl. Dec. 1994
26. RUY, D.O., and BRAUN, T. (2002) TCP in Wireless Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, Institute of CS and Applied Mathematics, University of Berne, Switzerland
27. S. Floyd, -HighSpeed TCP for Large Congestion Windows,? RFC 3649, December 2003
28. SESHAN, S. (2001) Computer Networking. Lecture 19 – TCP Performance, Carnegie Mellon University
29. SHEWTA, S. (1998) ?A TCP Tutorial‘. Available at http://www.ssfnet.org/Exchange/tcp/tcpTuto rialNotes.html, accessed on 25-8-2004
30. VENKATESH, R., and MIGUEL, A.L. (2002) Performance Analysis of TCP over Static Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. Department of CS and Engineering, University of South Florida Tampa, FL, USA
31. TANENBAUM, A.S., (2002) Computer Networks, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 891 pp.
32. VINT Project (2005), ?The NS Manual‘ formerly NS document, Available at http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/nsdocumentation.html, accessed on 14-9-2007.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareIMPACT OF ICT IMPLEMENTATAION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A CASE STUDY OF SCHOOLS IN KARAD OF SATARA DISTRICT
English4652R.D. KumbharEnglish Abhijit S. DesaiEnglish Hanmant N. RenusheEnglish Prasanna R. RasalEnglishThis research paper sets with the objective to study the impact of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) implementation in selected secondary schools in karad city The scope of the study is confined to the teaching learning process of a secondary school. As a
part of research design, secondary schools are selected based on a stratified random sampling method. A review of literature has taken to study the present status of research studies in the area of ICT implementation in schools. Review of literature has helped to decide various key performance indicators; on that basis the impact of ICT implementation can be studied. Data collection has been carried out by questionnaire and interview schedule methods from important key stakeholders such as students and teachers. The collected data was analyzed using
appropriate analysis tools and hypothesis was tested. It was found that the performance of students is enhanced after ICT implementation in teaching learning process. It has found that there is improvement in the effectiveness of teaching learning process of secondary schools.
EnglishICT, school, teaching stakeholders, performance.INTRODUCTION
Education system always runs with the objective of providing knowledge to learners by all possible ways using all types of mediums available. Information and Communication Technology has the potential to play a vital role in every university‘s teaching - learning process. Implementation of ICT has an impact on some key areas such: redesign and presentation of curriculum, uses of available resources and the way current activities of teaching-learning process are being reconfigured. This study undertaken with the aim of conducting qualitative research study and was carried out in selected secondary schools in karad city to assess impact of implementation of Information and communication technologies on teachinglearning process. There are a variety of philosophical approaches to the integration of ICT. It is also recognized that rapid technological advancements will inevitably -age? traditional observations in educational delivery of curriculum and classroom design.[1]
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT):
Information and communications technologies (ICT) are a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information. Communication and information are at the very heart of the educational process, consequently ICT-use in education has a long history. ICT has played an educational role in formal and non-formal settings, in programs provided by governmental agencies, public and private educational institutions, for-profit corporations and nonprofit groups, and secular and religious communities. [2] The new digital ICTs are combinations of hardware, software, media, and delivery systems. Today, ICT in education encompasses a great range of rapidly evolving technologies such as desktop, notebook, and handheld computers, digital cameras, local area networking, the Internet2 and the World Wide Web, CDROMs and DVDs; and applications such as word processors, spreadsheets, tutorials, simulations, electronic mail (email), digital libraries, computer-mediated conferencing, videoconferencing, and virtual reality. The advantages of ICT implementation in education are integration of multiple media, interactivity, usage flexibility, better connectivity, new pedagogical methods, remote resource access, enabling collaborations amongst online experts to deliver best possible knowledge to learners, etc. There are some difficulties faced in implementing such innovations, and due to rapid evolution in technologies, the present technology used for ICT implementation in education may quickly become outdated.[3]
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
A major purpose of this research is to build up specific knowledge about conditions and problems of accomplishment of ICT implementation, to reach conclusions about how ICT implementation can best be accomplished, and to establish a framework for ICT implementation in university‘s teaching-learning process. This research is also to obtain a clearer understanding of the practical needs and challenges of ICT implementation in a school and to support the development of higher level ICT implementation and development in general in India. The present study shows practices in the teaching learning process of a school have implemented ICT applications effectively. However the feedback from the students reveals the actual impact and effectiveness of ICT implementation. There is immense need to study what are the barriers for successful implementation of ICT. There is also need to study various methodologies used for ICT implementation.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study sets out the following objectives: 1. To review usage of ICT implementation by students to support their learning process. 2. To assess the students attitudes toward Information and Communication Technology.
RESEARCH DESIGN The research study can be divided into two main parts: the first part involved the research questions that attempt to assess the impact of use of ICT implementation on teaching learning process oof a school and familiarity of the students.
The second part of the research study, examines the possible relationship between the use of ICTs and the gender as well as the students performance.
SAMPLING
The sample of the research was chosen from the students in various secondary schools in karad city. The research sample of size 130 was selected from 650 students (the overall number of class X students) from 18 secondary schools in karad city on the basis of random sampling method and a questionnaire was distributed to them in order to complete it. The questionnaire was divided into two main areas. The first part of the questionnaire focuses on the student‘s experience of using ICT. This area attempted to examine whether the respondents have internet access in school lab, whether they use e-mail, other internet tools and whether they can use social networking to support their studies. The second of the questionnaire helps to derive information about students‘ attitudes to computer use and knowledge. For the purpose of data analysis, descriptive statistics methods were used.
FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS
According to the findings of the research, some of the findings regarding the students experience of using ICT and students attitudes towards use of computers and knowledge. The details of analysis shown in appendix-I
67 % students use ICT implementation to obtain information for their studies
78 % students visit school lab very frequently.
78 % students prefer ICT implementation in learning activities.
88 % students prefer not to use computers to support the study.
17 % students prefer to use ICT implementation for a module instead of a lecture
75 % students use computer as a support to other teaching activities.
79 % students like to communicate with teacher using emails.
94 % student‘s percentage of marks increased after implementation of ICT.
91 % student‘s attendance increase after use of ICT.
CONCLUSION
This study found that students of secondary schools in Karad city were generally favorable to ICTs implementation in teaching learning process. About students‘ performance, the survey revealed that students that use computers more often tend to score higher than other students. Based on the findings of the research it is recommended for the teachers of schools in karad city to increase motivation level of the students to use ICTs to support their studies. This can be achieved from the by providing adequate and latest facilities to the students to have internet. The teachers should integrate ICTs in their teaching methods/processes and motivate students to use computers by writing assignments or searching the internet for information for their studies. Furthermore, the ICT implementation is very important for the students after finishing their studies. The ICTs knowledge can help students in their future studies as well as in work environments and gives them competitive advantage comparing to others who are not familiar with computers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researchers are grateful to the authors, writers and editors of the books and articles, which have been referred for preparing the presented research paper. It is the duty of the researchers to remember their parents whose blessings are always with them.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2184http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21841. Mary Hayes, David Whitebread(1996) ICT in early years?, Tata McGraw hill Education New Delhi, ISBN: 9780335208098
2. Victoria L. Tino(2002) - ICT in Education?, UNDP-APDIP
3. Mary Hayes, David Whitebread(1996) - ICT in early years?, Tata McGraw hill Education New Delhi, ISBN: 9780335208098
4. Prof. c Burton(1999), New Directions of ICT-Use in Education, UNESCO's World communication and Information Report 1999, available at www.unesco.org/education/educprog/lw f/dl/edict.pdf, accessed on 4 June 2010.
5. Asifiwe Collins Gyavira Rubanju (2002), The impact of ICT on Universities: Classroom/Lecture theatre Design and Curriculum Delivery.Available at www.uv.uio.no/... /docs/The%20impact %20of%20 ICT%20on%20Universities.doc , accessed on 31 may 2010.
6. G.S.Vidyashankar and L.Prakash Sai(2006), -ICT-based Education in Schools: Emerging Business Models in India,
7. Areti Valasidou(2008), The Impact Of ICT‘s In Education:The Case Of University of Macedonia Students, Journal of Business Case Studies - March 2008 Volume 4,Number 3, available at www.cluteinstituteonlinejournals.com/PDFs/691.pdf , accessed on 3 June 2010
8. National mission on Education (2009), synopsis of National Mission on Education through ICT, available at http://www.education.nic.in/dl/SYNOPS IS-NME.pdf, accessed on 1st September 2010.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesSYNTHESIS, SPECTRAL ANALYSIS AND BIOLOGICAL STUDIES ON 6-METHYL-7, 9-
DIPHENYL-1, 4, 8-TRIAZASPIRO [4.5] DECANE
English5368N.ManivannanEnglish B.ElanchezhianEnglish G.SelvanathanEnglish K.PandiarajanEnglishThe title of the molecule 6-methyl-7, 9-diphenyl-1, 4, 8-triazaspiro (4.5) decane is synthesized from the condensation reaction of ethylenediamine with (t)3-methyl-r(2),c(6)-diphenyl Piperidin- 4-one. The product is evidenced by IR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra. In the 1H NMR study, it is found that the ABX spin system belongs to this molecule.The second-order analysis based on the method developed by Bernstein etal is used for ABX system.The parameters of coupling constants (3J9a, 10a = 11.46 Hz and 3J9a, 10e =2.46Hz) and origin of chemical shifts (υA=1.77 and υB=1.86ppm) are calculated using ABX system from which also found that the title molecule adopt chair conformation. These results also confirm that the substitutions of Phenyl and methyl groups are in equatorial position of the six memberd piperidine ring of the title compound. The Biological (antibacterial and antifungal) activities of title compound have also been studied.
EnglishEthylenediamine, triazaspiro decane, Spiro, ABX, second-order, conformation, antibacterial, antifungal.INTRODUCTION
The 6-methyl-7, 9-diphenyl-1, 4, 8- triazaspiro (4.5) decane is a ABX spin systems which have attracted considerable interest from the chemistry community as they represent promising building blocks with potential applications in the field of pharmaceuticals.Artificial product synthesis also diverse key synthetic catalyst. The 6- methyl-7, 9-diphenyl-1, 4, 8-triazaspiro (4.5) decane can be consist of symmetrical substitutions of phenyl with piperidine ring as diphenyl piperidine extended with methyl group. A linear fused or bridged systems, spirocyclic core systems are less common in known drugs and natural products. Some examples of spirocyclic natural product contain ring nitrogen include cephalotaxine, halichlorine, histrionicotoxin, triazaspiro and manzamine. In the area of nonnatural compounds spirocyclic nitrogen-containing systems are fashioned into compounds displaying interesting biological activities. Such spiro scaffolds can be classified according to the ring size of the heterocyclic ring. The interplay of the structural variation is resulted in compound ranging from the inactive to the extraordinary potent belongs to the above statement.We expect that, fusing imidazolidine ring and piperidine ring cause new biological activity. NMR spectral studies of heterocyclic compounds have helped in understanding the influence of electronic and conformational effects on chemical shifts and coupling constants .The conformational studies of heterocyclic compounds also have been made using NMR spectra [1-2]. Several NMR spectral studies [3-5], have been reported on 2,6- diaryl piperidine derivatives. The reaction of 1,2 diamines with carbonyl compounds provide Imidazolidines. The imidazolidine is the guiding principle of bond formation occurring via reaction of a binucleophillic component with an electron-deficient bielectrophilic counter.The five membered heterocyclic belong with two heteroatom at 1 and 3 position from the reaction of a 1,4- binucleophile with a 1,1-bielectrophile [6- 11]. Generally, 1,4 binucleophiles are encountered Ethylenediamine , Ethylene glycol and 1,1- Bielectrophile. Many of the common reagents are used as RCOR, RCHO, Carboxylic chlorides and phosgene. In the absence of reagent, the five membered rings are coupled by one carbon unit with piperidine ring. Because of this coupling, the piperidine ring is gained antifungal and antibacterial activities.
2. Experimental Methods
The reactant materials such as ammonium acetate, ethylmethylketone, benzaldehyde, benzene, potassium carbonate and petroleum-ether (60-80º C) are purchased from Sigma Aldrich chemicals, U.S.A. which is of spectroscopic grade is used for recording the spectra as such without any further purification. The product 6-methyl- 7,9-diphenyl-1,4,8-triazaspiro (4.5) decane is prepared by a Stirred solution of(AR)Ethylenediamine (15 mmol) in (AR) Benzene (45 ml), t(3)- methyl r(2) and c(6)- diphenylpiperidin-4-one (15 mmol). The reaction flask is fitted with a Dean - stark water separator.Which is charged with anhydrous K2CO3 and the solution is gently refluxed for 14 hrs and cooled room temperature [12-14]. The yellow oily solution is obtained and then (AR) petroleum ether (60-80 ºc) was added. The product is separated as pale yellow solid. It is recrystallized from Benzene, petroleum - ether. After recrystallization the melting point is observed at 71-72 ºC. (Yield -90%). The reaction scheme of the title molecule is given in figure 1
The FT-IR spectrum of the compound is recorded in Bruker IFS 66V spectrometer in the range of 4000-100cm-1 . The 1HNMR spectral analysis is carried out using Bruker AMX-400 NMR spectrometer operating at frequency 400 MHZ using deutriated chloroform .The 13CNMR spectral analysis is also carried out using Bruker AMX- 400 NMR spectrometer operating at frequency 100 MHZ.
2.1. Biological Activities:
About 0.03g of compound 6-methyl-7,9- diphenyl-1,4,8-triazaspiro(4.5) decane is dissolved in a suitable solvent such as (AR) ethanol, (AR) petroleum ether etc Muller Hinton Agar medium (MHA) – Antibacterial. Seaboard Dextrose Agar medium (SDA) Antifungal is Carried out Agar diffusion method.
3. Results and Discussion
Ethylenediamine is condensed [15] with t(3)-methyl-2,6-diphenylpiperidin-4-one and the product is carried out by scheme-1.The product was identified as 6-methyl -7,9- diphyl-1,4,8-triazaspiro (4.5) decane by IR, 1H and 13C NMR spectral studies. The structure of compound–II (6-methyl-7,9- diphyl-1,4,8-triazaspiro(4.5)decane) is shown in Figure 2.
The IR spectrum of compound (I) shown in Figure 3, a strong band at 1701 cm-1 is observed. But in the compound (II) that the carbonyl group weak band at 1701 cm-1 is observed . IR spectrum of compound (II) is shown in Figure 4. 3273 cm-1 (NH, str), 3060 cm-1 (Aromatic CH stretching), 2967(Aliphatic CH stretching), 1437 and 1375 cm-1 (Antisymmetric deformation of CH in C- CH3), 1113cm-1 (C- N stretching), 702cm-1 C6 H5 – ring deformation). 1H NMR spectral data‘s of title compound (II)is presented in the table 1and2 and the corresponding spectrum is given in figure 5and6.H9a – δ4.10 (H,dd), H7a - δ 3.70 (1H.d), H10a - δ 1.75 (1H,t), H10e – δ 1.89(H, dd) H6a- δ 2.04 (H ,m), CH3 - δ 0.64 (3H,d),C2 and C3 (CH2 )- δ 3.11 - δ 2.85 (4H.m), Aromatic- δ 7.15 - δ 7.55 (10H, m), N-H- δ 1.63 (3H- broad Singlet). 13C NMR spectral data‘s of title compound (II) is given in table-3 and the corresponding figure is presented in the figure 7. C5 - δ 80.28, C7 - δ 66.12, C9- δ 59.10, C2- δ 45.80,C3- δ 46.0, C6- δ 46.5, C10- δ 47.85, CH3- δ 10.48, aromatic ipso δ 144.7, δ 143.7, ortho- δ 126.9, δ 128.1, meta- δ 128.38, δ 128.32, Para- δ 127.1, δ 127.4.ppm.
AMX Calculation:
The spacing between centre of the signals are 10a and 10e is 40 HZ. The coupling constant between them is obtained from the signal 10e as 12Hz. The value ?υ/J is much less than 6 Hence protons H9a, 10a and 10e from an ABX system [16-18]. The coupling constant JAB and the chemical shift of proton X can be directly calculated from the observed spectral data. The actual value of JAX will be higher than that form the spectrum. The real value of JBX will be less than that obtained from the spectrum. Let υA and υB are actual chemical shifts of proton A and B in Hz. Let υ'A and υ'B centers of the observed signal from protons A and B actual value of JAx and JBx are calculated as follows.
3.1. Conformation of the piperidine ring in Compound - II
The coupling constant are 3 J9a, 10a is 11.46 and 3 J6a, 7a is 10.3 Hz. The coupling constant 3 J9a, 10e is 2.46 HZ. These values are indicated that the piperidine ring in the title of compound adopts a chair conformation [19] as shown in Figure 8and 8(A, BandC)
It is of interest to compare the 1HNMR spectral data of compound-II with those of 6-methyl-7,9-diphenyl-8-aza-4-oxa-1-thio Spiro[4.5]decane [20] (III) and 3-methylr(2),c(6)-diphenylpiperidine(IV) [21-23].For such comparison the 1H NMR spectral data of II,III and IV are given in Table-4 and 13C NMR spectral data of II,III and IV are given in Table-5.
II- 6-methyl-7,9-diphyl-1,4,8- triazaspiro(4.5)decane. III- 6-methyl-7,9-diphenyl-8-aza-4-oxa-1- thio Spiro[4.5]decane. IV- 3-methyl-r(2),c(6)-diphenylpiperidine. 1H NMR chemical shifts (ppm) of Compound II, III and IV Protons H7a and H9a are shifted to high frequency by 0.30 and 0.46 ppm in II than in IV. This is due to proximity interaction between the axial Nitrogen at C-5 and axial Hydrogen‘s H7a and H9a. A similar shift is observed in III .The methylene protons at C- 2 and C-3 appear at 2.85 -3.11 ppm as a complex pattern in II. In III protons at C-2 appear at 2.99 ppm those at C-3 appear at 4.06 ppm. This is due to a grater electro negativity of oxygen than Nitrogen. Benzylic carbons at C-7 and C-9 are shifted to lower frequency by 4.08 and 3.60 ppm in II than in IV this is due to the proximity interaction of the axial Nitrogen at C-5, which polarizes the C-H bonds at C-7 and C-9. A partial positive charge is accumulated on protons, which shifts the protons signal to higher frequency. A partial negative charge is accumulated on carbon, which shifts the carbon signal to lower frequency.
3C NMR chemical shifts (ppm) of Compound II, III and IV Benzylic carbons at C-7 and C-9 are shifted to lower frequency by 4.08 and 3.60 ppm in II than in IV this is due to the proximity interaction of the axial Nitrogen at C-5, which polarizes the C-H bonds at C-7 and C-9. A partial positive charge is accumulated on protons, which shifts the protons signal to higher frequency. A partial negative charge is acumulated on carbon, which shifts the carbon signal to lower frequency.
3.2. Biological activities of the compound
The compound 6-methyl-7,9-diphenyl- 1,4,8-triazaspiro[4.5]decane is treated with selected bacterial [24] and fungal [25] organisms. The bacterial organisms are used in E.coli, Pseudomonas, aeruginnosa, bacillus cereus, salmonella spp and klebsiella pneumonia. The fungal organisms are used in alternaria spp, Fusarium Spp, Aspergillus Niger, Aspergillus flavus and penicillium notatum. MR. methyl red, VP-vogues proskauer,TSI – Triple sugar iron, GNB – Gram negative Bacilli,GPB – Gram positive bacilli, A/A – Acid slant bacilli, K/K- Alkaline salt alkaline bacilli ,K/Aalkaline salt Acid bacilli] .A-Acid, (+ ) positive, (-) – Negative. The results of biological characteristics of bacterial-organism and antibacterial activity are presented in table 6 and 7 respectively and their photos are given in figure 9(9a,9b,9c,9d and 9d). The antifungal activity of title molecule is presented in table 8 and it‘s photos are given in figure 10(10a,10b,10c,10d and10e).
4. CONCLUSION
The 6-methyl-7, 9-diphenyl-1, 4, 8- triazaspiro (4.5) decane is synthesized from the condensation reaction of ethylenediamine with (t) 3-methyl- r (2), c (6) - diphenyl Piperidin-4-one. The IR, 1HNMR and 13C NMR spectral analyses have been carried out. The title compound is investigated for antibacterial and antifungal activities using MHA and SDA medium. The organisms like E. coli, pseudomonas aeruginnosa, salmonella spp klebsiella pneumonia and bacillus cereus for antibacterial and alternation spp, Fusarium spp, asparagus Niger, Aspergillums flavus, and penicillium notatum for antifungal. From the analyses it is found that the compound has good antibacterial and antifungal microbial activities. The vicinal coupling constants suggest that the piperidine ring of the compound has chair conformation. The methyl group at C-6 and two phenyl groups at C -7, C- 9 are equatorially oriented. Because of the wide pharmaceutical application, this compound can be used for the manufacturing the drugs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors of this article are thankful to the Dr. K. Pandiarajan, Dept of chemistry, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, V.Stalinelanchezhian research scholar, Madras University, Bhuvaneswari Department of microbiology, A.V.C.College (Autonomous), for their constant encouragement, necessary facilities and Indian Institute of Science Bangalore for spectral data's.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2185http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21851. J.B. Lambert, J Am chem Soc, 1967, (89), 1836-1840.
2. A.R. Katritz, I.V. Shcherbakova , B.Mancheno and R.D. Tack ,Magn Reson Chem, 1993,( 31),615.
3. K.Ramalingam, K.D. Berlin, N.Sathyamurthy and R.Sivakumar, J Org Chem, 1979,( 44),417-419.
4. M.U.Hasan ,M.Arab ,K.Pandiarajan , R.Sekar and d.Marko,Magn Reson Chem, 1985, (23), 292- 295.
5. K.Pandiarajan ,R.T.Sabapathymohan and M.U.Hasan , Magn Reson Chem, 1986,( 24), 312- 316
6. T.Ravindran and R.Jeyaraman, Indian J Chem, 31B, (1992),677-682.
7. V.Vijay Dhabokar andM.W.Mihiradkar, Indian J Chem, 48B,(2009), 1027-1032.
8. R.Jeyaraman and S. Ponnusamy , Indian J Chem, 37B,(1998),224-229.
9. S.Balasubramaniyan, C.Ramalingan and S.Kabilan, Indian J Chem, 41B, (2002), 2402-2404.
10. M.Sujatha and R.Jeyaraman, Indian J Chem, 31B, (1992), 507 - 512.
11. G.L.Kad , Vasundrasingh, Kanwalpreet Kaur and Jasvinder Singh, Indian J Chem,46B,(1998), 172-173.
12. J.W.White , I.. Kcushnir and Schepertz.,Bee Journal 102, (1962), 430-431.
13. N. Pathmavathi, A.Baliah , K .VenugopalReddy, Padhmaja and Baskar Reddy, Indian J Chem, 41B, (2002), 1670-1674.
14. N.Pathmavathi, A. Baliah, T.V.RamanaReddy, B.Jagmohan Reddy and D. Baskar Reddy , Heteroatom chem,14,(2003),513-518.
15. H.J. Berstein, J.A. Pople and W.G. Schneider,Can J Chem,35,(1957),67-83.
16. K.N.Slessor and A.S.Tracey, Can J Chem,49,(1971),2874-2878.
17. J.A.Pople, H.J. Bernstein and W.G. Suchneider, Can J Chem,35,(1957), 65-69.
18. R.M. Silverstein and F.X. Webster, Spectrometric identification of organic compounds.6th Edition,(2007).
19. V. Baliah, R. Jeyaraman and Chandraserkaran, Can J Chem,83, (1983), 379-382.
20. K.Pandiarajan, R.Sekar, R.Anantharaman,V. Ramalingam, Indian J Chem,30B,(1991),490-493.
21. H.Booth,Tetrahetron,22, (1966),615- 618.
22. K.Ramalingam, K.D. Berlin, N. Sathiyamurthy and R .Sivakumar, J Org Chem,44, (1979),474-477.
23. M.Sujatha and R.Jayaraman , Indian J Chem,31B,(1992),507-512
24. S.Bogdanov, Charaterizaion of Antibaterial substances in Imidazole, Labensm wiss technology,17(2),(1984) , 74-76.
25. P.C.Molan ,The antifungal activity of Imidazole. The nature of the antifungal activity. Bee World 73(1),( 1992), 5-28.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEVALUATION OF ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF MORINGA OLEIFERA AGAINST SOME BACTERIAL
STRAINS
English6975Mayee REnglish Thosar AEnglishThe chloroform seed extracts of Moringa Oleifera (CSEMO) showed significant antibacterial activity against twenty different gram positive as well as gram negative bacterial strains Staphylococcus aureus 29737, Staphylococcus aureus ML 267, Sarcina luteus 9341, Bacillus pumilus 8241, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633, Escherichia coli ATCC 10536, Escherichia coli VC Sonawave 3:37 C, Escherichia coli CD/99/1, Escherichia coli RP4, Escherichia coli 18/9, Escherichia coli K88, Shigella dysenteriae 1, Shigella soneii 1, Shigella soneii BCH 217, Shigella flexneri type 6, Shigella boydii 937, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 25619, Vibrio cholerae 2,
Vibrio cholerae 785, Vibrio cholerae 1037 when compared with Ciprofloxacin (200 μg/ml) which was used as standard antibacterial by using disc diffusion method.. For gram positive bacteria the CSEMO showed highest sensitivity against Staphylococcus aureus 29737 which was 16.66±0.33 mm and the lowest activity of 08.52±0.61 in Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633. While regarding gram negative bacteria CSEMO showed highest sensitivity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 25619 which was 15.00±0.57 on the other hand it showed minimum activity against Shigella soneii BCH 217 measured as 8.150.10.
EnglishMoringa Oleifera, antibacterial activity, disc diffusion method, Ciprofloxacin.INTRODUCTION
The use of medicinal plants as a source for relief from illness can be traced back over five millennia to written documents of the early civilization in China, India and the near east, but it is doubtless an art as old as mankind. Neanderthals living 60,000 years ago in present day iraq used plants such as hollyback, these plants are still widely used in ethnomedicine around the world [1, 2]. The potential of higher plants as source for new drugs is still largely unexplored. Among the estimated 250,000-500,000 plant species, only a small percentage has been investigated phytochemically and the fraction submitted to biological or pharmacological screening is even smaller. Thus, any phytochemical investigation of a given plant will reveal only a very narrow spectrum of its constituents. Historically pharmacological screening of compounds of natural or synthetic origin has been the source of innumerable therapeutic agents. Random screening as tool in discovering new biologically active molecules has been most productive in the area of antibiotics [3, 4]. Even now, contrary to common belief, drugs from higher plants continue to occupy an important niche in modern medicine. On a global basis, at least 130 drugs, all single chemical entities extracted from higher plants, or modified further synthetically, are currently in use, though some of them are now being made synthetically for economic reasons [5]. Medicinal plants represent a rich source of antimicrobial agents. Plants are used medicinally in different countries and are a source of many potent and powerful drugs [6]. A wide range of medicinal plant parts is used for extract as raw drugs and they possess varied Medicinal properties. The different parts used include Root, stem, flower, fruit, twigs exudates and modified plant Organs. While some of these raw drugs are collected in smaller quantities by the local communities and folk Healers for local used, many other raw drugs are collected in larger quantities and traded in the market as the raw material for many herbal industries [7]. Although hundreds of plant species have been tested for antimicrobial properties, the vast majority of have not been adequately evaluated [8]. Considering the vast potentiality of plants as sources for antimicrobial drugs with reference to antibacterial agents, a systematic investigation was undertaken to screen the local flora for antibacterial activity for Moringa Oleifera. Moringa oleifera Lam (Moringaceae), native to the western and sub – Himalayan region, India, Pakistan, Asia Minor, Africa and Arabia [9-10] is now distributed in the Philippines, Cambodia, Central, North and South America and the Caribbean Islands [11]. M. oleifera is a tropical tree whose numerous economic applications and facility of propagation are arousing growing international interest. The Moringa tree is cultivated and use as a vegetable (leaves, green pods, flowers, roasted seeds), for spice (mainly roots), for cooking and cosmetic oil (seeds) and as a medicinal plant (all plant organs) [12]. Moringa oleifera is a highly valued plant, distributed in many countries of the tropics and subtropics. It has an impressive range of medicinal uses with high nutritional value. Different parts of this plant contain a profile of important minerals, and are a good source of protein, vitamins, β – carotene, amino acids and various phenolics [13]. The Moringa plant provides a rich and rare combination of zeatin, quercetin, kaempferom and many other phytochemicals. It is very important for its medicinal value. Various parts of the plant such as the leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, flowers and immature pods act as cardiac and circulatory stimulants, possess antitumour [14], antipyretic, antiepileptic, antinflammatory, antiulcer [15]. Other important medicinal properties of the plant include antispasmodic [16], diuretic [11], antihypertensive [17], cholesterol lowering [18], antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective [19], antibacterial and antifungal activities [20]. M. oleifera parts are being employed for the treatment of different ailments in the indigenous system of medicine, particularly in South Asia [13]. In addition, M. oleifera seeds possess water purifying powers [21-22] by flocculating Gram – positive and Gram – negative bacterial cells [23-24]. M. Oleifera seeds can also be used as a less expensive bioabsorbent for the removal of heavy metals [25]. The present study was undertaken to investigate the antimicrobial activity of chloroform extract of M. Oleifera seeds
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Plant Material: The plant of M. Oleifera was collected from the roadside locations of Aurangabad (Maharashtra) region and was authenticated by department of Botany, BAMU, Aurangabad. Plant material was preserved in pharmacognosy department of Dr. Ved Prakash Patil, College of Pharmacy, Aurangabad. The leaves were shade dried and powdered in mixer grinder and stored in tightly closed container. Preparation of Extract: The dried powdered seeds (50g) were percolated in 500ml chloroform in 1l capacity conical flasks, stoppered and kept for two weeks with intermittent shaking. The percolate was filtered with Whatman‘s No 1 filter paper. The extract was concentrated at 40o C under reduced pressure using rotary evaporator (R110). In the study of antimicrobial activity, extract was dissolved in Dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO). The corresponding concentration was expressed in term of μg of extract per ml of solvent (μg/ml). Microorganisms: Twenty different gram positive as well as gram negative bacterial strains namely Staphylococcus aureus 29737, Staphylococcus aureus ML 267, Sarcina luteus 9341, Bacillus pumilus 8241, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633, Escherichia coli ATCC 10536, Escherichia coli VC Sonawave 3:37 C, Escherichia coli CD/99/1, Escherichia coli RP4, Escherichia coli 18/9, Escherichia coli K88, Shigella dysenteriae 1, Shigella soneii 1, Shigella soneii BCH 217, Shigella flexneri type 6, Shigella boydii 937, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 25619, Vibrio cholerae 2, Vibrio cholerae 785, Vibrio cholerae 1037 were collected from microbiology department of Dr. Ved Prakash Patil College of Pharmacy, Aurangabad.
METHOD
The bacterial strains were grown in MacConkey agar plates at 370C and maintained on nutrient agar slants. The antimicrobial activity was performed by disc diffusion assay as per NCCLS, 1993 [26]. The nutrient agar plates containing an inoculum size of 106 cfu / ml for bacteria was used [27].Previously prepared extract impregnated disc (6 mm in diameter) at the concentrations of 200 μg/ml for bacterial was placed aseptically on sensitivity plates with appropriate controls. Ciprofloxacin (200 μg/ml) was used as standard antibacterial. Plates were incubated at 370C for 24 hours for bacteria [28]. Sensitivity was recorded by measuring the clean zone of growth inhibition on agar surface around the disc. The diameters of the inhibition zones were measured in mm.
RESULT
Results obtained in the present study relieved that the tested medicinal plant extract posses potential antibacterial activity against both gram positive- Staphylococcus aureus 29737, Staphylococcus aureus ML 267, Sarcina luteus 9341, Bacillus pumilus 8241, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 as well as gram negative - Escherichia coli ATCC 10536, Escherichia coli VC Sonawave 3:37 C, Escherichia coli CD/99/1, Escherichia coli RP4, Escherichia coli 18/9, Escherichia coli K88, Shigella dysenteriae 1, Shigella soneii 1, Shigella soneii BCH 217, Shigella flexneri type 6, Shigella boydii 937, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 25619, Vibrio cholerae 2, Vibrio cholerae 785, Vibrio cholerae 1037 bacterial strains (table When tested by the disc diffusion method, the chloroform extract of seeds of Moringa Oleifera showed the highest antibacterial activity for gram positive bacteria of 16.66±0.33 in Staphylococcus aureus 29737 and least activity recorded in Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 measured as 08.52±0.61. On the other hand for gram negative bacterial strains the CSEMO showed highest antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 25619 measured as 15.00±0.57 while lowest activity seen in Shigella soneii 1 which was 09.25 0.12.
DISCUSSION
The antimicrobial activities of various plants have been reported by many researchers [30, 31]. Phytoconstituents present in plants namely flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and triterpenoids are producing exciting opportunity for the expansion of modern chemotherapies against wide range of microorganisms [32, 33]. In present study a variety of gram positive, gram negative bacteria stains were selected for the screening of antimicrobial effect of selected plant extract to perceive the antimicrobial spectrum as well to authenticate ethnomedicinal claims. The results of this study showed that the CSEMO have varied antimicrobial activities against the tested organisms. This study has not only shown the scientific basis for some of the therapeutic uses of traditional plants, but also confirmed the ethnomedicinal claims for the selected plants
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the results of this investigation revealed that chloroform extracts of selected plant possess differentiating antimicrobial activity against selected gram positive as well as gram negative bacterial strains. The differentiating activities against variety of microorganisms of this extracts encourage developing a novel broad spectrum antimicrobial formulation in future.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2186http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21861. Thomson WAR. Medicines from the Earth, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Maidenhead, United Kingdom. 1978.
2. Stockwell C. Nature‘s pharmacy, Century Hutchinson Ltd, London, United Kingdom. 1988.
3. Gerhartz W, YS Yamamota, FT Campbell, R Pfefferkorn, JF Rounsaville. Ullmann‘s Encyclopedia of Industrial. 1985.
4. Kroschwitz JI, M Howe-Grant. KirkOthmer encyclopedia of chemical Technology. 1992; 2:893. 5. Newman DJ, GM Cragg, KM Snader. The influence of natural products upon drug discovery, Nat Prod Res. 2000; 17: 215-234.
6. Srivastava J, J Lambert, N Vietmeyer. Medicinal plants: An expanding role in development, World Bank Technical Paper. No. 320, 1996.
7. Uniyal SK, KN Singh, P Jamwal, B Lal. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalayan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2006; 2: 1-14.
8. Balandrin MF, JA Klocke, ES Wurtele, WH Bollinger. Natural plant chemicals: Sources of Industrial and Medicinal materials Science. 1985; 228: 1154- 1160.
9. Somali MA, Bajnedi MA, Al-Faimani SS. Chemical composition and characteristics of M. peregrine seeds and seed oil. J. Am. Chem. Sco. 1984; 61:85 - 86.
10. Mughal MH, Ali G, Srivasta PS, Iqbal M. Improvement of drumstick (M. pterygosperma Gaertn) - a unique source of food and medicine through tissue culture. Harmdad Med. 1999; 42:37 - 42.
11. Morton JF. The horse radish tree: M. pterigosperma (Moringacea). A boon to arid lands, Economic Botany. 1991; 45:318 - 333.
12. Rebecca HSU, Sharon M, Arbainsyah A, Lucienne D. Moringa oleifera: medicinal and socio-economic uses, International Course on Economic Botany, National Herbarium Leiden, Netherlands. 2006: 2 - 6.
13. Farooq A, Sajid L, Muhammad A, Anwarul Hassan G. Moringa oleifera: a food plant with multiple medicinal uses. Phytotherapy Research. 2007; 21:17 - 25.
14. Makonnen E, Hunde A, Damecha G. Hypoglycaemic effect of M. stenopetala aqueous extract in rabbits. Phytother. Res. 1997; 11:147 - 148.
15. Pal SK, Mukherjee PK, Saha BP. Studies on the antiulcer activity of M. oleifera leaf extract on gastric ulcer models in rats, Phytother Res. 1995; 9:463 - 465.
16. Caceres A, Saravia A, Rizzo S, Zabala L, Leon ED, Nave F. harmacological properties of Moringa OleiferaScreening for antispasmodic, antiinflammatoy and diuretic activity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1992; 36:233 - 237.
17. Dahot MU. Vitamin contents of flowers and seeds of M. oleifera. Pak. J. Biochem. 1988; 21:1 - 24.
18. Mehta LK, Balaraman R, Amin AH, Baffa PA, Gulati OD. Effects of fruits of M. oleifera on the lipid profile of normal and hypercholesterolaemic rabbits. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2003; 86:191 - 195.
19. Ruckmani K, Kavimani S, Anandan R, Jaykar B. Effect of Moringa oleifera Lam on paracetamol - induced hepatoxicity. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 1998; 60:33 - 35.
20. Nickon F, Saud ZA, Rehman MH, Haque ME. In vitro antimicrobial activity of the compound isolated from chloroform extract of M. oleifera Lam. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 2003; 22:1888 - 1890.
21. Muyibi SA, Evison LM. Optimizing physical parameters affecting coagulation of turbid water with M. oleifera seeds. Water. Res. 1995; 29:2689 - 2695.
22. Kawo AH. Water purification potentials and in-vivo toxicity evaluation of the aqueous and petroleum ether extracts of Calotropis procera (Ait.F) Ait.F. latex and Moringa oleifera Lam seed powder. PhD thesis, Microbiology Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Bayero University, Kano. 2007: 184.
23. Olsen A. Low technology water purification by bentonite clay and M. oleifera seed flocculation as performed in Sudanese villages: effects on Schistosoma mansoni cercariae. Water Res. 1987; 21: 517 - 522.
24. Broin M, Santaella C, Cuine S, Kokou K, Peltier G, Joet T. Flocculent activity of a recombinant protein from Moringa
oleifera Lam. Seeds. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2002; 60:114 - 119.
25. Sharma P, Kumari P, Srivastava MM, Srivastava S. Removal of cadmium from aqueous system by shelled M. oleifera Lam. seed powder. Bioresource Technology. 2006; 97:299 - 305.
26. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Stamdards (NCCLS), 3rd Ed. approved standard M7-A3, NCCLS, Villanova, PA. 1993.
27. Mandal SC, Nandy A, Pal MP, Saha BP. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Asperagus recemosus Willd. Root. Phyto Res. 2000; 14: 118-119.
28. Mandal SC, Majumdar A, Majumdar R. Antibacterial activity of Litsea glutinosa bark. Fitoterapia. 2000; 71: 439.
29. Doughari JH. Antimicrobial activity if Tamarindus indica Linn. Trop J Pharm Res 2006; 5(2): 597-603.
30. Cowan MM. Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999; 22: 564-582.
31. Shariff ZU. Modern Herbal Therapy for common Ailments. Nature Pharmacy Series, Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan, Nigeria in Association with Safari Books (Export) Limited, United Kingdom, 2001; 1: 9-88.
32. Lutterodt GD, Ismail A, Basheer RH, Baharudin HM. Antimicrobial effects of Psidium guajava extracts as one mechanism of its antidiarrhoeal action. Malaysian J Med Sci. 1999; 6 (2):17- 20.
33. Marjorie MC. Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999; 12(4): 564-582.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareBLOOD CHEMISTRY AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAT-TYPE MALE
CHICKENS IN RESPONSE TO EXOGENOUS TESTOSTERONE ENANTHATE
English7682AlabiEnglish O.MEnglish OguntunjiEnglish A.OEnglishPerformance and blood serum parameters of meat type cockerels on five different levels of Testosterone
Enanthate were investigated. Parameters measured included Total Feed Intake(TFI),Initial Body Weight(IBW),Final Body Weight(FBW).Total Body Weight Gain(TBWG),Feed Conversion Ratio(FCR),Efficiency of Feed Utilization(EFU),Feed Cost per unit body weight gain(US$/kg),Total Protein(TP), Albumin(ALB), Globulin(GLB), Uric acid, Glucose, Cholesterol, Serum calcium and enzyme activities. The results revealed that the dosage of the testosterone enanthate had significant (p0.05) affected by the dosage of the exogenous hormone. Exogenous testosterone enanthate can be used to enhance the growth of meat type cockerels economically without adverse effect on the birds.
EnglishCockerels, Performance characteristics, Serum metabolites, Testosterone EnanthateINTRODUCTION
The use of hormones such as progesterone, trenbolone, zeranol, testosterone; antibiotics and feed additives are still allowed by the Food and Drug Administration of the United State of America1 and as part of the application of biotechnology for improving feed characteristics, hormones and probiotics are being used as supplements.2 Hormones have been used widely to induce molting in broiler breeder hens,3 inhibition of egg production,4 while laying period of hen can be extended with the use of progesterone.5 Broiler chickens are the major source of table meat but due to high cost of day old broiler chicks and feed, poultry farmers in many tropical countries have resorted into the commercial rearing of cockerels which in actual fact are hatchery wastes in many developed countries.6 In the tropics, cockerel keeping is an important and cheaper way of ameliorating the prevailing animal protein needs. Their cheaper cost at day old, ease of rearing, hardiness and less dependent on high quality feeds present them as suitable objects for food security 7 but they mature over a longer period of time of about twenty or more weeks.8 Various methods have been tried towards promoting growth rate among livestock and apart from nutritional manipulations, the use of natural hormones and other natural growth promoters are practicable. Hormones are widely adopted by farmers to enhance growth and reproductive performances in livestock production without adverse effect on animals and humans after consuming the products thereof.9 Testosterone enanthate is an esterified form of the natural steroid. It is anabolic in action and is secreted by the endocrine glands mostly by the male testes.10 It was reported11 that exogenous testosterone enanthate influenced the live weight of both male and female pigs positively and also that the haematological and serum biochemical values of the pigs were variously affected by the exogenous hormone. The objective of this study is therefore to investigate the effect of testosterone enanthate on the performance of cockerels in terms of feed intake, growth rate, feed conversion ratio, economy of production and physiological response in terms of the serum metabolites profile. food security 7 but they mature over a longer period of time of about twenty or more weeks.8 Various methods have been tried towards promoting growth rate among livestock and apart from nutritional manipulations, the use of natural hormones and other natural growth promoters are practicable. Hormones are widely adopted by farmers to enhance growth and reproductive performances in livestock production without adverse effect on animals and humans after consuming the products thereof.9 Testosterone enanthate is an esterified form of the natural steroid. It is anabolic in action and is secreted by the endocrine glands mostly by the male testes.10 It was reported11 that exogenous testosterone enanthate influenced the live weight of both male and female pigs positively and also that the haematological and serum biochemical values of the pigs were variously affected by the exogenous hormone. The objective of this study is therefore to investigate the effect of testosterone enanthate on the performance of cockerels in terms of feed intake, growth rate, feed conversion ratio, economy of production and physiological response in terms of the serum metabolites profile.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A total number of two hundred and fifty black cockerels of Harco strain from a reputable hatchery was used for this experiment. They were procured at day old, weighed at arrival and brooded for five weeks the time during which they were fed with commercial chick mash with the intake being monitored. At 6th week of age, 225 chicks were randomly allotted into five treatment groups; T1= No testosterone, T2= 0.1mg of testosterone per kilogram body weight (kbwt), T3= 0.2 mg/kbwt, T4= 0.3 mg/kbwt and T5= 0.4 mg/kbwt. Each treatment group had three replicates of 15 birds each in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The birds were allowed to adjust for one week and at 7th week of age, exogenous administration of testosterone enanthate started. The birds were injected between the hours of 7.00 am and 8.00 am intramuscularly at 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th week of age consecutively. Blood samples were collected from the birds at 7th week before administration of hormone started and at 12th, 16th and 20th week of age. Samples so collected were analysed for total protein, albumin, globulin, uric acid, cholesterol, glucose, and calcium and serum enzymes such as Aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and acid phosphatase. Blood samples were analysed for the serum metabolites using the enzymatic procedure earlier described.12, 13 Data were subsequently collected in respect of weekly body weight, weekly weight gain, mortality rate and feed intake on cumulative basis while FCR and EFU and feed cost per unit weight gain were calculated. Exogenous Testosterone and Blood Parameters of Cockerels Feed and water were supplied to the experimental birds ad libitum while general routine management practices in respect of vaccination and medication were strictly observed. Meanwhile, the average cost of feed per kilogram during the experiment was N50.00 (US$0.34). The proximate composition of the feed was determined by the methods as earlier described.14
Statistical Analysis
All data generated were subjected to statistical analysis using Analysis of variance procedure of Statistical Analysis Software.15The treatment means where significant were separated using the Duncan option of the same software. the gross composition of the grower mash fed to the experimental birds while Table 2 shows the proximate composition thereof. Table 3 shows the performance characteristics of the cockerels administered with graded levels of Testosterone enanthate. Parameters investigated were Initial body weight (IBW),Final body weight(FBW),Body weight gain(BWG),Total feed intake (TFI) and mortality rate while FCR,EFU and feed cost per unit weight gain were calculated. From the results in Table 3, IBW was the same for all the treatment groups being the average body weight at day old. However, FBW, BWG and TFI were influenced by the exogenous hormone. For FBW, the range was from 1.38kg (T1) to 2.25kg (T4). No significant (p>0.05) difference was observed between the means for T2 and T3 but they differed significantly (p0.05) difference was observed between the intake of birds in T2, T3, T4 and T5 but they all differed significantly (p0.05) affected by the exogenous testosterone enanthate.
DISCUSSION
Testosterone enanthate improved the feed intake of the birds as reflected in the results of this experiment. Being an anabolic steroid, testosterone promotes bone elongation and muscle build-up and it acts on the receptor for appetite stimulation on the hypothalamus hence the increased feed intake. This finding agrees with the earlier report16 that anabolic steroids promote feed intake and body growth in beef calves production. As a result of the enhanced growth with exogenous testosterone, the FCR was better than those in control group so also the EFU with the best result from birds in T4. These imply that the rate at which the feed was utilized to gain body weight was Exogenous Testosterone and Blood Parameters of Cockerels highly efficient with testosterone enanthate and consequently the feed cost per body weight gain. The findings revealed that it is cheaper and faster to raise cockerels to market weight with exogenous testosterone. The mortality rate can not be linked with the effect of exogenous testosterone. Meanwhile, the serum metabolites were not affected by the exogenous testosterone. This implies that the health status and the liver functions of the cockerels were not negatively affected by the testosterone enanthate administration. This agrees with the findings of 17 that reported that the serum metabolites of castrated and intact male pigs were not affected by exogenous testosterone.
CONCLUSION
The findings of this experiment suggest that exogenous testosterone enanthate can be used to enhance the growth of cockerels to market weight with cheaper cost of production and without deleterious effect on the birds and with the best results obtainable with administration of 0.3mg of the testosterone per kilogram body weight of the birds. Exogenous Testosterone and Blood Parameters of Cockerels
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2187http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21871. Aumaitre,A. Quality and Safety of Animal Production.Proc.8th World Conf.on Anim.Prod. 1998; 189-201.
2. Bonneau,M and Learveld,B. Biotechnology in Nutrition Physiology and Animal Health. Proc. 8th World Conf.on Anim.Prod.1998;312-331.
3. Attia,Y.A.,Burke,W.H.and Yamani,K.A. Response of Broilers Breeder Hen to Forced moulting by hormonal and dietary manipulations. Poult.Sc.1983; 73(2):245- 258.
4. Dvorak,M.,Sevcik,B.and Hylik,J. Effect of @33828 on delay of egg production in Pullets and on moulting hen. Veterinarian SPOFA, 1971; 13(5/6):285-296.
5. Prochazka,F.,Hylik,J., Sevcik,B. and Dvorak,M. Effect of VUFB 7319 on inhibition of egg production at the end of laying period and on forced moulting. Veterinarian SPOFA,1971;13(5/6): 329- 345.
6. Alabi, O.M. Effect of Weather Variations on Commercial Broilers Production in South-western Nigeria. Thesis: Dept Of Animal Sc University of Ibadan,Nigeria,1997.
7. Obioha,F.E.and Abnikwe,P.E.N. Utilization of ensiled and sun-dried cassava peels by growing swine. Nut.Rep.Int., 1982;26:961-972.
8. Oluyemi, J.A. and Roberts, F.A. Poultry production in Warm wet Climates. Spectrum Books Ltd. 2000.
9. Ferrando,R. Method of measuring hormone levels in Animal Production. In: Sterol Analysis,Muskin, Grower and Kirk(Eds) Lc and Fertilizer,New York,1990.
10. Adejumo, D.O., Ladokun, A.O., Ososanya, T.O., S okunbi,O.A.and Akinfemi.Haematology and serum biochemical changes in castrated and intact Male pigs administered testosterone enanthate: Proc.18th Ann. Conf. of Anim. Sc. Ass.of Nig.(ASAN),2005, 93-95.
11. Ladokun,A.O.Exogenous hormonal regulation of growth rate,blood chemistry And Fertility in Pigs. Ph.D.Thesis,Department of Animal Sc.University of Ibadan,Nigeria,2006.
12. Henry,R.H.,Sabel,C.and Berkman,S. On the determination of Pancreatic Lipase In Serum Clichem,1957;3:77
13. Kohn,J. A cellulose Acetate supporting medium for some electrophoresis. Clin. Chin. Acts, 1957;,2:297.
14. A.O.A.C.Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of Analysis. 11th Ed. Washington, D.C.1990.
15. SAS. Statistical Analysis Systems. Institutions Users Guide, SAS Institute, Cary, N.S.1999. Exogenous Testosterone and Blood Parameters of Cockerels.
16. Anthony, R.V., Bellows, R.A., Short, R.E., Staigmiller, R.B., Kaltenbach, C.C and Dunn, T.G. Fetal growth of beef calves.1.Effect of Prepartum Dietary crude Protein on birth weight, blood metabolites and steroid. Hormone concentrations.J.Anim.Sci, 1986; 62:1363-1374.
17.Adejumo,D.O.,Ladokun,A.O.,Ososanya, T.O.,Sokunbi,O.A.and Akinfemi. Haematology and serum biochemical changes in castrated and intact Male pigs administered testosterone enanthate: Proc.18th Ann. Conf.of Anim. Sc. Ass. of Nig.(ASAN),2005; 93-95.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesGENETIC MECHANISMS OF DROUGHT TOLERANCE IN MAIZE HYBRIDS DEVELOPED FROM SCREENING OF 100 MAIZE LINES
English8394Roshni VijayanEnglish A.KalamaniEnglish G. NallathambiEnglishDrought is a major constraint in the cultivation of crops especially in tropical areas. Drought tolerance studies in maize help to understand the parameters which are associated with drought stress in the crop. This research was conducted to analyze the impact of drought on yield of maize (Zea mays L.). The development of drought tolerant hybrids for rainfed and moisture stress conditions with emphasis on using genotypic and phenotypic data was another objective. The initial study started with 100 genotypes from which the 10 best genotypes (lines) were selected for drought tolerance studies. Screening was carried out using physiological and phenotypic data.
Thirty hybrids were developed from the 10 lines and 3 testers (locally adapted varieties) utilizing a LINE X TESTER analysis. Parents and hybrids were phenotypically assessed in two field conditions: irrigated and moisture stress. Results showed that hybrid IBET IE 1253-8 X UMI 61 was best under normal irrigation and IBET IE 1256-6 X COH (M)5 was best under moisture stress. Taking both fields together, the best hybrid was IBET IE 1253 X UMI 61 which averaged 6.4t/ha. The best parental lines for both conditions were COH (M) 5 and Hy R'06 6143-16. Results support the fact that yields are low when maize is subjected to drought stress. The best
hybrid was equal to the local variety under both irrigated and moisture stress condition. Drought tolerant maize hybrids can help to improve productivity in drought stressed areas.
EnglishDrought, line X tester, moisture stress, gca, scaINTRODUCTION
Maize (Zea mays.L.) is the most important crop next to wheat and rice in the world agricultural economy. It is important for food, animal feed and industrial utilization. It is the crop of the future as mentioned by Dr. Norman E. Borlaug (Dahiya 2008). Maize can play a vital role in ensuring food security as well as nutritional security for developing countries and the world as a whole. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (2003) report, out of 593 million tons of maize produced on 142.3 million hectares globally, 17 per cent is used as human food and 66 per cent as animal feed. Drought is a major constraint to maize production in all areas where there is no adequate rains or irrigation. Global climate change is considered to be underway and is expected to result in a long-term trend towards higher temperatures, greater evapo-transpiration and an increased incidence of drought in many regions of the world (Hillel and Rosenzweig. 2002). Water shortage in India by 2020 is expected to be severe, as the per capita availability of water per person becomes less than 1,000 cubic meters. Water shortage is important, as 85 per cent of water is used for agriculture, 10 per cent for industry and 5 per cent for domestic use (outlookindia. 2009). Above mentioned trends emphasis the fact that competition for water will increase in future with domestic and industrial demands meaning less water for agriculture and irrigation. The expansions of cultivation of maize into marginal production areas are generating increasingly drought-prone maize production environments. The grain loss in maize due to drought in the tropics averages 24 million mega grams per year (Wilkinson 1992). Climate change will further increase the chances of drought. Maize hybrid breeding objectives depend on various factors like the requirements of farmers, market forces, production levels, constraints and crop ecology. However, the most important breeding objective is increased grain yield. The average annual yield loss in maize due to drought is estimated to be 17% in the tropics (Wilkinson 1992). Drought tolerance is not a simple character governed by one or two genes but controlled by a number of morphophysiological characters independently controlled by more than two genes (Fukai and Cooper. 1995). The major problem in drought tolerance breeding is the poor understanding of genetics and the inheritance of drought tolerant traits, and lack of understanding of the relationship between the physiological traits in drought tolerance and plant productivity under stress (Wilkinson 1992). Improvement of drought resistance in high yielding genotypes can be achieved by the incorporation of morphological and physiological mechanisms of drought resistance in new lines through breeding programs. The use of genetics to improve drought tolerance and to provide yield stability is an important part of the solution to stabilizing global maize production. Breeding genotypes suitable for both irrigated and drought conditions will be useful to farmers and to industries. This research uses physiological and morphological drought tolerant mechanisms for the development of drought tolerant hybrids. The objective of the study was to provide useful information for breeders in developing drought tolerant maize hybrids. The activities of the research comprised of three parts: i) Screening of the germplasm for drought tolerance ii) Line x Tester analysis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation was carried out from 2007- 2009 at the Department of Millets, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India (11 North latitude, 77 East longitude). Soils for the experiment were black cotton soils (vertisols) with a loamy texture for the irrigated treatment and a clay loam for the induced moisture stress treatment. During the experiment the mean annual rainfall was 17.7mm received in 4 rainy days. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures were 30.2 C and 21.5 C, respectively.
Screening of maize genotypes for drought tolerance
A hundred lines obtained from the maize germplasm collection at the Department of Millets, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore were screened for drought and identification of tolerance traits. Initial Screening was done in a greenhouse using relative water content, chlorophyll content values and specific leaf area data. Seeds were sown in 250 ml paper cups filled with garden soil, peat and sand in 1:1:3 ratios. A completely randomized design (CRD) with 3 replicates, with 10 plants per treatment was used. All 3 measurements were taken from five plants randomly selected from each replication on the 30th day after seedling emergence. The Chlorophyll meter from Minolta (SPAD model 502 of Minolta, Japan) was used to measure chlorophyll values from the newly emerged leaf on either side of the midrib at a point three - fourths of the way from the base to leaf tip. Specific leaf area is a measure of the leaf area of the plant to leaf dry weight. Matured leaves after 20 days of emergence were collected and leaf area was measured using a LI-3100C Area Meter and leaf dry weight was taken after oven drying for 8 hours at 80C The relative water content was estimated by taking 25 leaf discs of 1 cm diameter from 25 day old leaves using a punch machine and fresh weight of the leaf discs was taken. The leaf discs were then immersed in water at 25C. After 4 hours the turgid weight of the discs was measured. The leaf discs were oven-dried for 8 hours at 80C and the dry weight taken. The formula proposed by (Barrs and Weatherley 1962) was utilized to derive RWC values. For the 100 genotypes, the means of the 3 measured traits were used to do cluster analysis by numerical taxonomy techniques, using NTSYS-pc package, version 2.01, (Rohlf. 1997). An Unweighted Pair-Group Method of the Arithmatic (UPGMA) (Sokal and Michener. 1958) average clustering procedure was employed to construct the dendrogram. Based on the groupings in the dendrogram, 34 genotypes were selected for further studies.
Line x Tester analysis
The selected 34 genotypes were taken to a field crossing block during June 2008. Each genotype was raised on a ridge spaced 60 cm apart, five meter long, and 30 cm between plants; sowing of genotypes was at three dates, 10 days apart, for synchronization of flowering. From 34, 10 were selected for the line x tester analysis based on the anthesis to silking interval of 1-2 days. The ten lines selected were crossed with three testers (locally adapted varieties) individually in a line x tester model (Kempthorne. 1957) to obtain 30 hybrids. All thirteen parent lines (10 lines and 3 testers) (Table1) along with the 30 hybrids were evaluated from December 2008 to February 2009, under irrigated and induced moisture stress conditions in two different fields. The moisture stress was created artificially by withdrawing irrigation a week before flowering started for 28 days and another field grew the same lines under normal irrigated conditions with 10 irrigations spaced 10 days apart. Each entry was grown in two rows of five-meter long using a randomized block design(RBD) replicated thrice; spacing was 60 x 30 cm. Recommended agronomic and plant protection practices were followed to maintain healthy growth. Observations were recorded on five plants selected randomly from each entry and replication. The parents and F1 hybrids were examined for morphological traits and yield components whose genes were found to have an impact on drought stressed output as grains. The yield components which were responsible for yield were cob weight, 100 seed weight, number of kernels per row, number of rows per cob, and single plant yield. The morphological traits which showed an influence on drought tolerance of the crop includes, anthesis silking interval (ASI), root volume, chlorophyll stability index (CSI), and relative water content (Table 2).
Statistical Analysis
The data was subjected to statistical analysis using the INDOSTAT statistical package developed by Indostat Services, Hyderabad, India. Analysis of variance for all characters was determined (Panse and Sukhatme. 1961). The mean values were used to estimate heterosis per cent under three categories of mid parent, better parent and standard parent (Fonesca and Paterson. 1968).
RESULTS
Screening of maize genotypes for drought tolerance
Means of 3 measured traits, chlorophyll meter reading, relative water content and leaf area were used to do cluster analysis and develop a dendrogram (Fig 1). This allowed the hundred genotypes selected for drought testing to be grouped into eleven major clusters (Fig.1) and 34 genotypes were selected, with 3 each from 8 groups, 1 each from group 2 and 6 and rest 8 from the group 3 which was the largest group. The 34 genotypes were selected as drought tolerant genotypes for further study which are diverse from each other. These genotypes were planted in field. The 10 genotypes (lines) which had an ASI of 1-2 days were further selected for Line X Tester analysis, since ASI is the major criteria for selection of lines with drought tolerance in maize.
Line X Tester Analysis
The present investigation tested ten inbred lines as female parents and three inbreds as male parents for their genetic potential in breeding program for grain yield under irrigated and stress conditions. The parents which possess desirable genes were identified by comparing the mean values and general combining ability (gca). The line L10 and tester T2 was found to perform best (Table3). The magnitude of heterosis was studied for characters that affected yield and drought tolerance (Table 5). Since yield is a complex trait, knowledge of the association of different components with yield is necessary. For the expression of maximum yield, all genes which contribute to yield should have a positive heterosis for the exploitation of hybrid vigor in the development of hybrids (Table 4). The major traits which have a genetic contribution to yield showing significant effects are cob weight, 100 kernel weight, number of kernels per row, number of kernel rows per cob, single plant yield. All these traits were showing positive heterosis in the superior F1 hybrids developed. Not much variation was noticed in normal irrigated or induced moisture stress developed hybrids in terms of hybrid vigor. This has lead to the selection of a particular hybrid which performs well in both conditions. A positive heterosis in chlorophyll stability index, relative water content and negative heterosis in traits of root volume and anthesis silking interval is desired to exploit heterosis in development of drought tolerant hybrids (Table 4).This was noticed in the case of both the conditions of normal irrigation as well as induced moisture stress. There was maximum contribution of crosses resulted from lines x testers to total variance for grain yield per plant, 100 seed weight and cob weight, CSI, root volume followed by contribution of female parents for ASI, and plant height. In normal irrigated condition, the hybrid L5XT3 was best suited to heterosis breeding for cob weight, 100 kernel weight, number of kernels per row, and single plant yield. The hybrid L10XT2 was suited for number of kernels per row and 100 kernel weight. For drought prone environments, the hybrids L6XT2 was suited to heterosis breeding for 100 kernel weight, number of kernels per row and single plant yield. The hybrid L5XT3 was suited for root volume. The hybrid L1XT3 was best for number of kernel rows. In induced moisture stress situation, the hybrid L6 X T2 (IBET IE 1256-6 X COHM5) was performing better with positive significant value for grain yield and number of kernel rows per cob while in the irrigated condition, the hybrid L5 X T3 (IBET IE 1253-8 X UMI 61) recorded positive significant values for grain yield and drought related traits of root volume, chlorophyll stability index and relative water content and was the best hybrid for irrigated condition. In both induced moisture stress and normal irrigation, the hybrid L5 X T3 (IBET IE 1253-8 X UMI 61) recorded positive significant values for grain yield per plant and was the best hybrid for both conditions. While considering the various traits in both conditions of induced stress and normal irrigation, the hybrid L5 X T3 expresses a positive significant value for grain yield per plant, which can happen only when the genes which contribute to maximum yield are expressed well in the hybrid along with the desirable environmental effects. The hybrid L5 X T3 (IBET IE 1253-8 X UMI 61) did not show a wide difference in grain yield of 6.4t/ha, 6t/ha for irrigated and induced stress conditions respectively. In the L5 X T3 hybrid both the parents has positively significant gca effects for most of the traits.
DISCUSSION
Screening of the germplasm for drought tolerance From the dendrogram data, it is clear that physiological parameters play a vital role in the study of drought tolerance. The selection of suitable plants from a germplasm collection using specific physiological traits is a viable way for crop improvement for water stress tolerance (Kiani et al. 2007, Reynolds et al. 2005, Tambussi et al. 2007) The initial selections of 34 inbred lines from the 16 clusters in the dendrogram (Fig 1) were based on the physiological traits related to drought. Hence a simple method of screening maize lines using three potential physiological selection criteria, relative water content, chlorophyll content and specific leaf area were tested in the present study. The clusters indicate the diverse nature of the inbred lines used for development of drought tolerant hybrids. (Burke. 2001, Srikanthbabu et al. 2002) expressed that genetic variability for water stress response can only be expressed when plants are exposed to water stress. The higher water stress tolerance is due to expression of water stress-responsive genes that can be translated into certain physiological phenomena such as maintenance of relative water content and chlorophyll content (Bruce et al. 2002, Waseem et al. 2006). Selection of inbreds with the physiological parameters in the initial stage of seedlings itself has an impact on the final development of hybrids since physiological traits are found to have its impact in drought tolerance.
Line x Tester analysis
The ten inbred lines identified as female parents and three testers as male parents, according to the Line X Tester analysis, the genetic potential and the nature of the gene action of the genes involved was assessed. The best parents L10 (Hy R`06 6143-16) and T2 (COH (M) 5) identified had a better general combining ability, but those were not able to produce the better hybrids. The reason could be the good combiners will not result in specific combiners leading to better hybrids. The F1 hybrids which were evaluated for grain yield under irrigated as well as in stress conditions (Ganunga. 2007). In the present study, the magnitude of heterosis, and general and specific combining abilities were studied for drought specific characters (Dadheech and Joshi. 2007 ; Fonesca and Paterson. 1968). Since yield is a complex trait, knowledge of the association of different components with yield like cob weight, number of kernel rows per cob, number of kernels per cob and interrelation among themselves is useful. Per cent heterosis over mid parent and better parents were estimated to know the possible gene action and to exploit heterosis for drought associated traits and yield. Parents with high mean values like L10 and T2 are preferred for using in hybridization program as they are expected to produce desirable segregants (Frova et al. 1999). Evaluation of hybrids in F2 generation becomes necessary to consider whether a hybrid can be used on a commercial basis or could be utilized in a breeding program. The hybrids can be evaluated based on their mean value and degree of heterosis. For cob weight, 100 kernel weight, number of kernels per row, and single plant yield the hybrid L5XT3 recorded the highest value under normal irrigated condition. This shows that genes contributing these traits were able to express better in this hybrid. The specific combining ability of this hybrid is better. While comparing the induced moisture stressed field, the variation observed is due to the impact of stress condition. In a stressed situation certain genes are expected to express well resulting in overdominance of the genes related to drought resulting in another hybrid to express better. In induced moisture stress the hybrid which performed best was L6 X T2. While comparing both hybrids L6XT2 AND L5XT3, the parents involved were different in both. For obtaining good specific combining crosses, good combiners should come together, but this is not a rule for all crosses. Sometimes two poor combiners may yield good specific combination due to epistatic gene action. The crosses with poor combiners will yield transgressive segregants in segregating generations.
CONCLUSION
The development of drought tolerant maize hybrids can help to improve productivity in drought stressed areas. From the research the F1 hybrids developed had the presence of drought tolerant genes. Now when we need to extend the research for F2 generation where we will be able to see the segregating pattern of the genes and also will be able to select the best from the F2 for further development of hybrids for commercial cultivation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Professor Peter Hobbs, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA for his valuable suggestions in the development of this manuscript.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2188http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21881. Barrs, H.D. and Weatherley, P.E. (1962) A reexamination of the relative turgidity technique for estimation of water deficits in leaves. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences. 15: 413-428.
2. Bruce, W.B., Edmeades, G.O. and Barker, T.C. (2002) Molecular and physiological approaches to maize improvement for drought tolerance. J Exp Bot. 53: 13-25.
3. Burke, J.J. (2001) Identification of genetic diversity and mutations in higher plant acquired thermotolerance. Physiol Plantarum. 112: 167-170.
4. Dadheech, A. and Joshi, V.N. (2007) Heterosis and combining ability for quality and yield in early maturing single cross hybrids of maize (Zea mays L.). Indian J Agric Res. 41: 210- 214.
5. Dahiya, S.B. Coarse cereals need government support. TribuneIndia...AgricultureTribune. 2009.
6. Fonesca, S. and Paterson, F.L. (1968) Hybrid vigour in seven parental diallel cross in common wheat. (Triticum aestivum L.). Crop Science: 85-88.
7. Frova, C., Krajewski, P., Di Fonzo, N., Villa, M. and Sari-Gorla, M. (1999) Genetic analysis of drought tolerance in maize by molecular markers. I. Yield components. Theor Appl Genet. 99: 280-288.
8. Fukai, S. and Cooper, M. (1995) Development of drought-resistant cultivars using physiomorphological traits in rice. Field Crops Res. 40: 67-86.
9. Ganunga, R.P. (2007) Genotypic and phenotypic chacterization of maize test cross hybrids under stressed and non stressed conditions.
10. Harrigan, G.G., Stork, L.G., Riordan, S.G., Ridley, W.P., Macisaac, S., Halls, S.C .et al. (2007) Metabolite analyses of grain from maize hybrids grown in the United States under drought and watered conditions during the 2002 field season. J Agric Food Chem. 55: 6169-76.
11. Hillel, D. and Rosenzweig, C. (2002) Desertification And Its Relation To Climate Variability And Change. Adv Agron. 77: 2- 39.
12. Kempthorne, O. (1957) An introduction to genetic statistics. Wiely, New York.
13. Kiani,P. S , Grieu, P , Maury, P. , Hewezi, T. , Gentzbittel, L. and Sarrafi, A. (2007) Genetic variability for physiological traits under drought conditions and differential expression of water stress-associated genes in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). TAG.Theoretical and applied genetics.Theoretische und angewandte Genetik. 114: 193-207.
14. Murthy,K.S. and Majundar,S.K. (1962) Modifications of the techniques for determination of chlorophyll stability index in relation to studies of drought resistance in rice. Curr. Sci., 31:470-471.
15. outlookindia. (2009) news.outlookindia.com | 'India to Face Severe Water Stress by 2020'.
16. Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. (1961) Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers.
17. Reynolds, M.P., Mujeeb-kazi, A. and Sawkins, M. (2005) Prospects for utilising plant-adaptive mechanisms to improve wheat and other crops in drought- and salinity-prone environments. Ann Appl Biol. 146: 239-259.
18. Ribaut, J.M and Ragot, M. (2007) Markerassisted selection to improve drought adaptation in maize: the backcross approach, perspectives, limitations, and alternatives. J Exp Bot. 58: 351-60.
19. Rohlf, F.J. (1997) NTSYS-PC, E. Setauket, NY. . 2.1 ed, Exeter Software.
20. Sokal, R.R. and Michener, C.D. (1958) A statistical method for evaluating systematic relationships. . University of Kansas, Lawrence.
21. Srikanthbabu, V., Ganeshkumar, Krishnaprasad, B.T., Gopalakrishna, R., Savitha, M. and Udayakumar, M. (2002) Identification of pea genotypes with enhanced thermotolerance using temperature induction response technique (TIR). J Plant Physiol. 159: 535-546.
22. Tambussi, E.A., Bort, J., Guiamet, J.J., Nogues, S. and Araus, J.L. (2007) The Photosynthetic Role of Ears in C3 Cereals: Metabolism, Water Use Efficiency and Contribution to Grain Yield. Crit Rev Plant Sci.
26: 1-16. 23. Tuberosa, R., Salvi, S., Giuliani, S., Sanguineti, M.C., Bellotti, M., Conti, S. et al. (2007) Genome-wide Approaches to Investigate and Improve Maize Response to Drought. Crop science. 47: S120.
24. Waseem, M., Athar, H. and Ashraf, M. (2006) Effect of salicylic acid applied through rooting medium on drought tolerance of wheat. Pakistan journal of botany. 38: 1127- 1136.
25. Wilkinson, D. (1992) Proceedings of the Forty-Seventh Annual Corn and Sorghum Research Conference 1992: [held in Chicago, Illinois, December 9 - 10, 1992]. . American Seed Trade Assoc., Washington, DC.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524134EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareCHLORINATION LEVEL OF WATER AND PREVALENCE OF VIRAL HEPATITIS IN FLOOD AFFECTED AREAS OF VADODARA, INDIA
English95102Shaikh MohsinEnglish Patil RajkumarEnglish Khan M.IqbalEnglishIntroduction: Recently Gujarat has been attacked by flood in 2005 specifically Vadodara City
between June 29 to July 2, 2005. The chlorination level of drinking water is checked through
house to house survey post flood and results were compared to hepatitis cases after few months
in the same areas.
Objectives: To know the chlorination level of water in administrative ward wise municipality
system in Vadodara city post flood and its association with the viral hepatitis cases after feW months.
Methodology: Study population includes purposively selected 400 households from each of the 10 wards of Vadodara city. This research has been conducted between July to October 2005 (Chlorination of water - July 4th to July 20th 2005 and Disease prevalence - July '05 to Oct'05.). Chlorination of water is checked through house to house survey while Viral Hepatitis data were collected through municipal corporation monthly reporting system. Statistical analysis was done using Epi info 6.04d.
Results: Measuring the chlorine level in each of the 10 administrative wards of Vadodara city showed initial low level of chlorine (Englishadministrative ward, households, chlorination of waterINTRODUCTION
Chlorination is a water treatment that destroys disease-causing bacteria, nuisance bacteria, parasites and other organisms. There is no substitute for a safe and sanitary water supply. Continuous chlorination used to treat recurring bacterial contamination problems. This process is similar to that used in municipal water supplies as a preventive measure. Continuous chlorination is a necessity for surface water INTRODUCTION Chlorination is a water treatment that destroys disease-causing bacteria, nuisance bacteria, parasites and other organisms. There is no substitute for a safe and sanitary water supply. Continuous chlorination used to treat recurring bacterial contamination problems. This process is similar to that used in municipal water supplies as a preventive measure. Continuous chlorination is a necessity for surface water.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research includes purposively selected 400 households from each of the 10 administrative wards of Vadodara city municipal corporation system. Whole Vadodara city is distributed in four zones which included different wards like East zone has ward no.1, 2, 9, West zone has ward no. 6, 10, North zone has wards no. 7, 8 and South zone includes ward no. 3, 4, 5. We selected houses randomly from each of the administrative ward and total of 100 samples were collected from each zone everyday from different household. Chlorination of water was checked using chloroscope through house to house survey following flood in Vadodara city (Date of flood in Vadodara: June 29, 30 and July 1, 2 2005 and the chlorination of water checked between 4th July to 15th July 2005), while Viral Hepatitis data were collected through municipal corporation monthly reporting system for the month of July to October 2005. The results regarding the chlorination level of water following flood were regularly being communicated to the local and state health authorities to help designing precautionary measures. Statistical analysis was done using Epi info 6.04d.
RESULTS
Chlorine testing was carried out in different areas of all four administrative zone of Vadodara city, subsequent to instructions from the Department of Health, Government of Gujarat during during June 2005. Chlorination Testing was carried out between 4th june to 15th june 2005. The results were noted and information was provided by Preventive and Social Medicine Department to the Department of Health of Govt. of Gujarat and focus was given on high chlorination level of drinking water at end user level with immediate effect. 100 random water samples were checked from each zone daily for chlorination. Initially we didn‘t found any water sample of Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2189http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21891.Tandon BN, Gandhi BM, Joshi YK, Irshad M, Gupta H. Hepatitis non-A, nonB: The cause of major public health problem in India. Bull World Health Organ 1985;63:931-4.
2.Monthly Newsletter of National Institute of Communicable Diseases. Vol 4. Outbreaks of viral hepatitis E: Public health system needs to be alert. CD Alert, Delhi: National Institute of Communicable Diseases; 2000.
3. Sarguna P, Rao A, Sudha Ramana KN. Outbreak of acute viral hepatitis due to hepatitis E virus in Hyderabad. Indian J Med Microbiol 2007;25:378-82.
4.Acharya SK, Madan K, Dattagupta S, Panda SK. Viral hepatitis in India. Natl Med J India 2006;19:203-17.
5.WHO. Hepatitis E, Chad. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2004;35:313-20.
6. Somani SK, Aggarwal R, Naik SR, Srivastava S, Naik S. A serological study of intrafamilial spread from patients with sporadic hepatitis E virus infection. J Viral Hepat 2003;10:446-9.
7.WHO, Hepatits E, WHO/CSR Web site. 2001. Available from: http://www.who.int/emc . [last accessed on 2010 Feb 11].
8. Park K. Epidemiology of Communicable Diseases: Intestinal Infection-Viral Hepatitis. 19 th ed. Park's textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine. Jabalpur: Bhanot Publisher; 2007. p. 175.
9 . Kondo H. Seo N, Yasuda T et.al, Postflood-infectious diseases in Mozambique, Prehospital Disaster Med. 2002 Jul-Sep; 17(3):126-33