Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24General SciencesImpact of Heavy Metals and Other Factors on Soil Acarines in Four Different Edaphic Habitats in and Around a Metropolitan Township
English0110Manabendra Nath MoitraEnglishObjectives: The objective was to examine the nature, the extent and the variation of the impact of edaphic factors and heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu) on soil acarine populations at different disturbed habitats and at a forest site in and around a metropolitan township.
Method: Four differently used edaphic habitats – a solid waste disposal site, a roadside area, sides of a sewage canal and a natural forest in and around Kolkata were selected for the study. Sampling was conducted for three years with 30 days interval.
Results: Soil moisture and organic carbon exhibited statistically significant and positive correlation with the mite population in all the sites (pEnglishSoil mite, Edaphic factors, Heavy metals, Polluted sitesINTRODUCTION
Among soil mesofauna, Acari is one of the major microarthropod groups and is often found to constitute the largest fraction of them (Bhattacharya, 1979; Choudhuri and Pande, 1981; Sanyal, 1982). Their importance owing to their high numerical abundance and diversity in the context of edaphic environment is well established (Crossley, 1977; Heneghan et al., 1998). Population abundance of mites in soil vary in relation to various environmental factors like temperature, moisture, organic matters, nutrient availability etc. (Choudhuri and Pande, 1981; Sanyal, 1982; Ghatak and Roy, 1991; Tousignant and Coderre, 1992; Rutigliano et al., 2013; Bokhorst et al., 2014). The ecological study of soil microarthopods including mites in polluted or ecologically disturbed areas has drawn the attention of many researchers in different parts of the world (Russek, and Marshall, 2000; Zaitsev and van Straalen, 2001; Iloba and Ekrakene, 2008; Sarkar et al., 2015; Manu et al., 2017). In India however, a few studies on different groups of soil microarthropods in degraded and polluted areas have been attempted (Hazra et al., 1982; Hazra and Choudhuri, 1990; Bhattacharya and Chakraborti, 1994; Ghosh et al., 2007), but specific studies relating edaphic factors and abundance of acarines in degraded or polluted sites is limited when the magnificent variability of observations in their ecology is considered. The present work was therefore taken up to deal with this aspect and to add up to the information base necessary for future assessment of the environmental conditions and biomonitoring as well.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Four differently used edaphic habitats – a solid waste disposal site, a roadside area, sides of a sewage canal and a natural forest in and around Kolkata were selected for the study. At each of the sites, five sub-plots of 1 m2 area were marked for the collection. Three cores of samples up to 15 cm depth were collected from each of the sub-plots.
1. Dhapa (Site-I): This is a dumping ground of city wastes, located by the side of Eastern Metropolitan Bypass and is spread over an area of 35 hectares. Vegetation was sparse in the selected site. Jacaranda mimosaefolia (Bignoniacae), Calotropis procera (Asclepiadaceae), Datura metel (Solanaceae) and Lantana camara (Verbinaceae) etc. were found in the area.
2. Sides of VIP-Barasat road (Site-II): VIP-Barasat road is one of the main arterial roads of North Kolkata connecting Ultadanga and Barasat and experiences heavy vehicular movement daily. The present site therefore has been considered as degraded. Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae), Colocasia esculenta, Datura metel (Solanaceae), Amaranthus sp. (Amaranthaceae), Acacia auriculiformis (Mimoseae), Michelia champaka, Euphorbia sp. (Euphorbiaceae), Saccharum spontaneum (Poaceae), Calotropis sp. (Asclepiadaceae) were among the common vegetation at the site.
3. Tollygunj Nalah (Site-III): Tollygunj Nalah or Tolly nullah is a remnant of ‘Adi Ganga’. Nowadays this nulah receives a large amount of sewage daily from the adjoining human settlements as well as the small industries that have mushroomed around it. The sampling site selected for the present study was located in between Garia metro station and Garia rail station on the embankment of the nulah. Poinciana regina (Leguminosae), Musa sp. (Musaceae), Tamarindus sp. (Leguminosae), Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) and Saccharum sp. (Poaceae) abounded the sampling site.
4. Chintamani Abhyaranya, Narendrapur (Site-IV): This abhayaranya is located near Narendrapur Ramkrishna Mission in south Kolkata. Dalbergia sp. (Papilionateae), Saraca indica (Annonaceae), Terminalia arjuna (Combretaceae), Adina sp. (Rubiaceae) Tamarindus sp. (Leguminosae), Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), Saccharum sp. (Poaceae), and Dryopteris sp. (Polypodiaceae) constituted the dominant vegetation at the site.
Sampling:
A cylindrical steel holder, an iron rod and a stainless steel core with 5 cm internal diameter and 5 cm depth were used for sampling (Dhillon and Gibson, 1962). Sampling was conducted during three consecutive years (2007-2009) with a monthly interval. Three cores of samples from five sub-plots (of 1m2 area) of each of the sites were collected.
Tullgren funnel apparatus modified by Macfadyen (1953) was used for the extraction of soil fauna from the samples in the present work.
Microarthropod groups were separated using needles and fine camel hair brush. They were preserved in tubes with 80% alcohol. Sorting and counting of the microarthropods was done using a wide field stereoscopic microscope with 70x magnification.
Physicochemical parameters:
Physicochemical factors investigated in the present study included soil moisture, soil temperature, organic carbon, pH and heavy metals - copper, lead and zinc.
Soil temperature was recorded at the sites during collection of samples using a soil thermometer. For other edaphic factors, soil samples were tasted in laboratory.
Soil temperature: Soil temperature was recorded from 3 cm depth of soil profile by inserting a mercury thermometer.
Soil moisture: Soil moisture was estimated by following the method suggested by Dowdeswell (1959).
Organic Carbon: Rapid titration method (Walkley and Black, 1934) was followed to estimate the organic carbon content of soil.
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH): The soil pH value was measured from soil suspension using a digital pH meter (Beckman).
Estimation of Heavy metals: Concentrations of three heavy metals– lead, zinc and copper in soil were estimated by atomic absorption spectroscopy using method based on ISO 11047 (1998) (ISO 11047: 1998: Determination of cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, nickel and zinc: Flame and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometric methods). Soil Analyst 700 atomic absorption spectrometer (Perkin Elmer make) was used for the purpose.
Statistical Analysis:
A natural log transformation of the data was made to meet the requirements of normality data sets whenever necessary in the application of parametric statistical methods that included linear correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Gerard and Berthet 1966). For statistical analysis, software Minitab, version 5.1.2600 service pack 2 was used.
RESULTS
Soil moisture and organic carbon exhibited statistically significant and positive correlation with the mite population in all the sites, while soil temperature and heavy metals showed weak or strong negative effect in most instances. Interrelations between edaphic factors were also studied along with mite population which indicated negative impact of moisture on metal content in many instances (Tables 1-4).
Site-wise observation on correlation between mite population and physicochemical factors:
Site-I: Soil temperature showed no significant correlation with the abundance, while moisture and organic carbon exhibited strong positive correlation (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1267http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1267
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24General SciencesGrowth and Characterization of NaCl doped Organometallic L-Asparagine Cadmium Chloride Monohydrate (LACCM) Crystals
English1115S. Mugunda KumariEnglish N. ThangarajEnglish R. RakheshEnglish N. Joseph JohnEnglishSingle crystals of sodium chloride (NaCl) doped organometallic nonlinear optical material L-asparagine cadmium chloride monohydrate (LACCM) were successfully grown by slow evaporation method at room temperature. Grown crystals were characterized by single crystal and powder X-ray diffraction analysis, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive analysis by X-ray and thermal studies. The second harmonic generation was confirmed by the Kurtz and Perry powder technique. The presence of various functional groups was identified from FTIR spectral analysis. The mechanical strength of the grown crystal has been determined with the aid of Vickers hardness test. The second harmonic efficiency and dielectric constant increases significantly due to the introduction of sodium ions into the lattice of l-aspargine cadmium chloride crystal, so that this crystal is a potential material for nonlinear frequency conversion.
EnglishNonlinear optic material, Crystal growth, XRD, FTIR, Thermal studies Introduction
In recent years, tremendous efforts have been devoted to synthesize organometallic complex second order nonlinear optical (NLO) materials capable of frequency conversion into visible and ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths. Such materials are widely used in device fabrications relating to telecommunications, optical computing, optical disk storage, and optical information processing. These materials have the potential for combining the high optical nonlinearity and chemical flexibility of organics with the physical ruggedness of inorganics [1–5]. Organometallic compounds differ from most organic NLO materials by charge transfer transitions i.e metal-to-ligand and ligand-to-metal. These NLO metal complexes exhibit donor (π-conjugate bridge) and acceptor (D-π-A) structures [6].
In case of metal organic co-ordination complexes the organic ligand is usually more dominant in the nonlinear optical (NLO) and dielectric effects, The metallic part focus in on group II B metals (Zn , Cd and Hg).These compounds usually have high transparency in UV region , because of their closed d10 shell. Potential NLO materials like bis thiourea cadmium chloride (BTCC), triallyl-thiourea cadmium chloride (TATCC)[7] are examples of this approach.
The amino acids are the famous organic materials. Play a vital role in the field of nonlinear optical crystal growth. Many members of natural amino acids individually exhibiting the nonlinear optical properties because they have a donor NH2 and acceptor COOH group and the intermolecular charge transfer is also possible. Especially natural amino acids such as Arginine, alanine, lysine and γ glycine are evidently showing NLO property because of additional COOH group in first and NH2 group in second. Therefore mixing of amino acid with already known organic, inorganic or semi-organic NLO materials may improve their NLO and ferroelectric properties. The literature survey confirmed the studies on improved second harmonic generation, thermal, and opto-electric properties of crystals grown by mixing equimolar ratios of amino acids L-alanine, L-arginine with malic acid, oxalic acid, nitric acid and acetic acid [8-13]. The title compound L-Asparagine cadmium chloride monohydrate (LACCM) was investigated by many authors [14,15]. In our present work aiming to improve second harmonic efficiency, sodium chloride doped the single crystals of LACCM were grown by slow evaporation technique and the effect of Na+ ion on structural, thermal and dielectric properties were analyzed in detail.
Materials and methods
Synthesis and growth of NaCl doped LACCM
AR grade L-aspargine, Cadmium chloride monohydrate, Sodium chloride purchased from Merck India and double distilled water were used for the growth of NaCl doped LACCM crystals. L-aspargine and Cadmium chloride were taken in equimolar ratio. Calculated amounts of the reactants were thoroughly dissolved in double distilled water. Then, it was mixed with continuous stirring for about 2 h using magnetic stirrer with hot plate. One mole percentage of sodium chloride was added to the supersaturated aqueous solution prepared in a 100 ml beaker (corning glass vessel) and allowed to equilibrate at the desired temperature. The crystals were grown in the unstirred condition by slow evaporation technique [16-22]. The temperature and volume were kept constant, respectively at 30°C and 20ml for all the crystal growth experiments.
The beakers were covered tightly with polythene covers. Small holes were made on the cover for proper evaporation of the solvent. The whole setup was kept in a dust-free area and closely monitored. The solution loses particles which are weakly bound to other components and, therefore, the volume of the solution decreases. An excess of a given solute is established by utilizing the difference between the rates of evaporation of the solvent and the solute. Normally,
the vapor pressure of the solvent above the solution is higher than the vapor pressure of the solute and, therefore, the solvent evaporates more rapidly and the solution becomes supersaturated. It is sufficient to allow the vapor formed above the solution to escape freely into the atmosphere. Homogeneity of the solution is expected to be maintained during crystal growth due to normal convection process of the liquid. Small crystals appeared in the beginning due to slow evaporation and grew larger (up to about 2 cm in size) in considerable finite time of about 6 hrs. After the completion of growth, crystals were harvested. Good quality optically transparent large size crystals were selected for carrying out the measurements.
Characterization
FTIR studies of the grown crystals were analyzed by Fourier Transform Infra Red spectrometer model SPECTRUM RXI make PERKIN. The single crystal X-ray diffraction studies of the grown crystals were carried out using BRUKER KAPPA APEX II model single crystal X-ray diffractometer with MoKα (λ = 0.717 Å) radiation. Powder X-ray spectrum was obtained by PANalytical X’Pert Pro Powder X’Celerator diffractometer. The optical transmittance spectrum was recorded in the range of 190-1100 nm, using Lamda35 Perkin Elmer make UV-Vis-NIR spectrometer. Micro hardness studies have been carried out using a SHIMADZU HMV-2T model hardness tester. The applied load was varied from 5 to 100 g with a constant indentation time of 15 seconds in each case. The hardness profile was studied by plotting the variation of hardness number (HV) with applied load (P). The NLO test of LACCM crystals were evaluated by the Kurtz and Perry powder technique [23] using a Q-switched, mode locked Nd : YAG laser emitting 1.06μm, 8 ns laser pulses with spot radius of 1 mm. DSC measurements were done by Mettler Toledo DSC 822E model calorimetry.
Result and discussion
Crystals with regular shape and size of about 14×11× 5 mm3 were harvested within 15 to 20 days. The photograph of the grown LACCM crystals is displayed in Fig. 1. The external appearance or morphology of the grown crystals seems to be polyhedron in shape. Morphology of crystals changes when growth conditions such as growth media, temperature and addition of impurities are altered. Since the growth temperature has not been completely kept constant during the growth of the crystals in the present work, there are morphological changes in the grown crystals.
FTIR analysis
The formation of functional groups was confirmed by using SPECTRUM RXI make PERKIN FTIR spectrometer by KBr pellet technique with a scan range of 4000–400 cm−1 as shown in Fig. 2. Table 1 gives the assignments for all peaks. The peak around 3383–3107 cm−1 is due to NH stretching of NH2 vibration. The peak obtained at 2996 cm−1 is due to CH2 vibration of the amino acid. The NH3 + asymmetric vibration is observed at 1681 cm−1 and NH2 torsional oscillation at 514 cm−1. The peaks obtained at 1580 and 1429 cm−1 are due to asymmetric and symmetric vibrations of COO− [23]. The C–C–COO vibration occurs at 1236 and 1150 cm−1. The peak obtained at 891 cm−1 is due to C–C–N symmetric vibration. The peaks at 668 and 514 cm−1 indicates that COO− bending and COO− rocking vibration. These vibrations proved the presence of expected functional groups in the synthesized compound and in good agreement with the reported value [14].
Structural analysis
Crushed powder of LACCM crystal was subjected to powder X-ray diffraction analysis. The sample was scanned the wide range of 0–80? with a scan rate of 2?/min. The recorded X-ray pattern of LACCM is shown Fig 3. The prominent well defined sharp Bragg’s peak at specific 2θ angle reveals that the good crystalline nature of NaCl doped LACC crystal. Crystal size of 0.200 x 0.200 x 0.300 mm and wave length 0.71073 Å was used for single crystal XRD. The crystal system is orthorhombic and unit cell dimensions are a = 5.5801(12) Å, b = 9.804(3) Å, c = 11.804(3) Å, cell volume V=645.7(3) Å3 ,α = 90°, β = 90°, γ = 90°. The presence of sodium ions in LACCM doped with sodium chloride was confirmed by EDAX. The composition of the elements present in the sodium chloride doped LACCM crystals are displayed along with SEM image in fig. 4 & 5.
NLO test
The NLO property of the crystal was confirmed by the Kurtz and Perry powder technique[24]. The transmitted fundamental wave was passed over a monochromator, which separates 532 nm (second harmonic signal) from 1064nm and absorbed by a CuSO4 solution, which removes the 1064 nm light. The green light was detected by a photomultiplier tube and displayed on a storage oscilloscope. The powder SHG efficiency of the crystal is compared with KDP and it is found to be 0.98 times that of KDP due to the higher polarization of smaller ionic radii Na ions.
Microhardness test
The Vickers hardness number (Hv) increases with respect to increase in load. The value of Hv is 38 and 70 for the loads 0.025 and 0.100 kg, respectively. The value of the work hardening coefficient (n) was estimated from the ratio of log p to log d (using the Mayer’s relation p=kdn). It is observed that the value of n was 1.1568 for the load p=0.100 kg. For hard materials the value of the work hardening coefficient(n) liesbetween1.0 and 1.6 [22] and hence it is concluded that sodium chloride doped LACCM crystal belongs to the category of hard materials.
Thermal analysis
Thermal stability of the LACCM crystal was studied by DSC analyses. The recorded DSC spectra of the sample are shown in Fig. 7. From the DSC curve, the thermal stability of the sample is realized upto 400°C. Sodium chloride doped LACCM material shows loss in weight due to the molecules, which are loosely bounded to the central metal atom at 117-130°C and 239- 257 °C. These molecules break their bonds get detached and leave the complex as fragments from the coordinating sphere. Thermal resistance offered by sodium chloride doped LACCM has been observed upto 400 °C, which is attributed to high cohesive energy of the transition metal complex with strong bonding nature [25]. The binding energy of ionic crystal (sum of electrostatic and Van der Waals part of attractive interactions) explains the thermal resistance of the complex. Endothermic peak reveals that melting occurs at 118° C and subsequent exothermic peak represents the decomposition nature of the sample.
Conclusion
The organometallic NLO single crystals of sodium chloride doped L-aspargine cadmium chloride (LACCM) were grown by slow evaporation technique and characterized by X-ray diffraction (single crystal land power) studies. The FT-IR spectral analysis confirms the presence of functional groups in the compound. The presence of sodium impurity was confirmed by energy dispersive analysis by X-ray. The TG analyses how that the material has thermal stability up to 400°C. The NLO property is confirmed by SHG measurement. The micro-hardness study proved that this organometallic compound belongs to the category of hard materials.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge STIC Cochin for SXRD and thermal studies, IISc Bangalore for SHG measurement, St. Joseph College Trichy for FTIR and microhardness studies, National College Trichy for SEM and EDAX spectrum and Alagappa University Karaikudy for PXRD studies
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25.C. Razzetti, M. Ardonio, L. Zanotti, M. Zha, C. Paorici, Solution growth and characterisation of L-alanine single crystals, Cryst. Res. Technol. 37 (2002) 456
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24HealthcareRole of Subcortical Band Heterotopia in Epileptogenesis - Case Report
English1618Neera SamarEnglish Rattilal MeenaEnglish Mayank SharmaEnglish Sourav ShristiEnglish Rohit GargEnglishBand heterotopias are one of the rarest groups of congenital disorder that result in variable degree of structural abnormality of brain parenchyma. Band of heterotopic neurons result from a congenital or acquired deficiency of the neuronal migration. We report a case of 15 year old female patient with subcortical band heterotopia in which disease manifested itself in first decade of life without any such family history.
EnglishSub ependymal, Focal subcortical, Laminar or band heterotopiaINTRODUCTION
Seizure is an important neurological disorder which can be due to primary and secondary causes .Primary causes of seizures are many a times due to developmental malformations like cerebral heterotopias which are a type of neuronal migration disorder which can be detected by MRI. Heterotopias are generally divided into three groups, depending on the location of the ectopic formations: Sub ependymal, focal subcortical, laminar or band heterotopia(double cortex)2
Band heterotopia is a type of neuronal migration disorder. Neuronal migration is the process in which neurons move from their place of origin to permanent location. They probably result from an arrest in migrational process of neuroblast from the periventricular layer to the cortex, which usually occurs maximally between the seventh and sixteenth gestational week3 or are due to programmed cell death of group of neuroblasts4
The prevelance of band heterotopias with epilepsy is unknown. The associated epilepsy syndrome is variable and seizures may be generalized or focal often suggesting subcortical white matter of frontoparietooccipital region.
Differential diagnosis: Tuberous sclerosis, polymicrogyria, schizencephaly, hemimegalencephaly, lissencephaly-pachygyria spectrum2
CASE REPORT
This is a case of fifteen year old girl who was admitted to the medicine department of RNT MC Udaipur with history of on & off seizures; which were generalized tonic clonic seizures. She had been given some medication by local doctors but her symptoms persisted despite that .So her parents brought her at R.N.T. Medical college, Udaipur. She had history of five episodes of abnormal tonic clonic movements of body without fever/trauma, each episode was accompanied with classical frothing from mouth, deviation of angle of mouth, tongue bite with urinary incontinence. She presented with low IQ and had history of seizures for last 7 yrs.
Her neurological examinations was also abnormal. Her MMSE score was 22/30,no cranial nerve palsy, in motor examination her tone was normal, power of both upper and lower limb were 5/5,bilateral plantar flexor, DTR normal, no neck rigidity ,normal gait & no cerebellar signs. Other system on clinical examination were normal. At the time of seizure during hospital stay, urgent electrolytes(Na=136,K=3.8,Ca=9.4),ABG and blood sugar(RBS=137) were tested immediately to rule out common reversible causes of seizure. In RNT MC all the routine investigations were performed in which :
S.VitB12 was in lower than normal limits, s vit b12=183.30pg/ml(N=211-911 pg/ml). Hb=12.1gm/dl; WBC=6540/mcl; Pltcount=271000/mcl; PBF=NCNC;
RBS=93mg%;Serum UREA=18.35mg%;
Serum CREAT=0.76mg%;CRP=0.45mg/l(negative);RA factor negative qualitatively; serum TSH=3.840mIU/ml; Coombs direct and indirect test are negative. Chest xray PA view and ECG were normal.
EEG report of the patient showed normal awake EEG Record.
MRI scan of the brain showed abnormal linear bands of gray matter in subcortical white matter of bilateral frontal and parieto occipital regions suggestive of band heterotopia. This band was surrounded by normal white matter. No other significant abnormalities were found on MRI scan.
Based on this finding, diagnsosis of band heterotopia was made which is a rare entity. After the diagnosis was made patient was started on oral anti epileptic drugs ;sodium valproate and phenobarbitone; for last one month she is not having any complaints.
DISCUSSION:
Heterotopias are generally divided into three groups, depending on the location of the ectopic formations: Sub ependymal, focal subcortical, laminar or band heterotopia(double cortex)2 Band heterotopia is a type of neuronal migration disorder. Neuronal migration is a the process in which neurons move from their place of origin to permanent location. They probably result from an arrest in migrational process of neuroblast from the periventricular layer to the cortex, which usually occurs maximally between the seventh and sixteenth gestational week3 or are due to programmed cell death of group of neuroblasts4. The prevelance of band heterotopias with epilepsy is unknown. The associated epilepsy syndrome is variable and seizures may be generalized or focal often suggesting subcortical white matter of frontoparietooccipital region.
In our case patients antenatal history was insignificant and presented with off and on history of grand mal epileptic seizures for last seven years presenting, with MMSE Score22/30 & rest of neurological examination/investigation being normal with MRI findings of subcortical band heterotopias in white matter bilaterally, frontoparietoccipital region. She was diagnosed as case of epilepsy, subcortical band heterotopias, discharged on antiepileptic drugs with control of seizures.
Differential diagnosis could be Tuberous sclerosis, polymicrogyria,
schizencephaly, hemimegalencephaly, lissencephalypachygyria
spectrum2.
During gestational period successive waves of primitive neuroblasts migrate from the germinal matrix to form the cerebral cortex and dep nuclei of the brain between 2-4th month of gestation. Collections of normal neurons in abnormal locations, results from arrest of radial migration of neuroblast, found in gray matter. Band heterotopias is a rare variety of neuronal migration syndrome, usually as a band of gray matter between the lateral ventricle and cerebral cortex and surrounded by normal appearing cortex.These patients have bilateral circumferential and symmetrical ribbons of gray matter located just beneath the cortex and separated from it by a thin band of white matter which led to term “DOUBLE CORTEX SYNDROME”. These patients usually present with behavioural problems, mild mental retardation and seizure disorders in infancy. However, intelligency can be normal and seizure may begin latter in life.
A related syndrome, X linked liscencephaly and SBH also occur in which homozygous males have liscencephaly and heterozygous female have SBH. Recent studies have identified two genes that are linked to these syndromes. One L1S1,maps to chromosome 17p13 and encodes a protein that function as a regulatory subunit of Platelet activating factor acetyl hydrolase, which degrades platelet activating factor and is involved in microtubule dynamics. With regard to its latter role Platelet activating factor acetyl hydrolase controls the distribution and function of the microtubule motor dyenin, thereby controlling the movement of the nucleus during neuronal migration. Studies of mice with targeted LIS1 mutation suggests that this protein is necessary for normal pyramidal cell migration and neurite overgrowth. Another gene DOUBLE CORTIN is located on the X chromosome and is mutated in patient with X linked lisencephaly and SBH. The protein product of DOUBLE CORTIN is highly expressed in fetal neurons and their precursors during cortical development. Like Platelet Activating Factor Acetylhydrolase DOUBLE CORTIN protein is associated with microtubules, suggesting that it is also involved in cell migration5.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1269http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=12691. Band heterotopia.(Alam MS1, Naila N ,J Ayub Med CollAbbottabad. 2010 Apr-Jun;22(2):208-9).
2. Heterotopias: classification and differential diagnosis in pediatric MRI C-0067 ;ECR 2013 ;Educational Exhibit ;I. Villar Blanco, I. MotaGoitia, M. Velasco Ruiz, M. D. C. GarcíaVázquez, J. A. Alvarado Rosas, L. Cubillo De Olazabal; Madrid/ES ;Dysplasias, MR, Neuroradiology brain 10.1594/ecr2013/C-0067 .
3. Rakic P(1978) Neuronal migration and contact guidance in the primate telencephalon,Postgrad med/54:25/40
Rakic P (1995) Radial vs Tangential migration of neuronal clones and the the developing cerebral cortex Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:11,323-7
4. Kuida et al(1996) Decreased apoptosis in the brain and prematute lethality in CPP32 deficient mice.Nature 384:368-372
5. Larsen's Human Embryology(By Gary C. Schoenwolf, Steven B. Bleyl, Philip R. Brauer, Philippa H. Francis-West)5th edition Pg-228
6. Barkovich AJ, Subcortical heterotopia: a distinct clinicoradiologicentity. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1996;17:1315–22.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24HealthcareTwo New Species of Corynespora from West Bengal, India
English1922D. HaldarEnglishThe present paper deals with the description and illustrations of the two undescribed species of Corynespora Gussow viz.Corynespora calotropidis Haldar sp.nov. and Corynespora jatrophae Haldar sp.nov. growingon the living leaves of Calotropis gigantea (Asclepiadaceae) and Jatropha curcus (Euphorbiaceae), collected from Murshidabad district, West Bengal,India.Morphotaxonomic identity of the species ispresented here along with the microphotograph and visible symptoms on host plants consulting with the current literature.
EnglishAnamorphic fungi, Morphotaxonomy, Foliicolous, CorynesporaINTRODUCTION
The genus Corynespora was erected by Gussow in the year 1906 with Corynespora cassicola (Berk.and Curt.) Wei = C.mazei Gussow as type species. It is a sac fungus and the present taxonomic position of the genus-Class-Dothideomycetes, Order-Pleosporales and the family-Corynesporscaceae.The reproductive structure of this fungus is the conidia which are distoseptate with or without distinct hila and monoblastic terminal conidiogenous cells. The funguscauses foliar diseases in shrub, undershurb and perennial plants, predominating in the tropics and sub tropicregions including India. The genus isrepresented by about 140 species throughout the globe (Farr DF Rossman,Mycobank, 2016).
A good number of novel taxa of Hyphomycetes have been previously described by different workers of this country particularly from the Department of Botany, Presidency University, Kolkata (erstwhile Presidency College, Kolkata) and School of Mycology at D.D.U. Gorakhpur University and elsewhere, Bilgrami et at., 1991; Jamaluddin et al., 2004. Presently a number of species of the genus of Corynespora under hyphomycetes have been described from India and abroad by Bhat, 2010; Braun and Crous2007; Castañeda et al., 2004; Dubey and Rai; 2003; Ellis,1971,1976;Haldar 2011,2016a,2016b;2017; Hawskworth 1974; Jain et al., 2002; Kamal,2010; Kamal,1998;Kumar et al., 2007; Kumar and Singh2016a;2016b; 1998; Singh et al., 2000 Singh et al., 2007; Kharwar 1998; Singh et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2006; Kumar and Singh 2016; Kai Zhang et al.,2009; Meenu et al.,1997; Mycobank, 2017; Pal et al.,2007; Singh et al 2012; Seifert and Gams 2001; Seifert et al., 2011, Sefert et al ., 2001; Savile 1962; Sharma et al., 2002; Sharma et al., 2003; Sharma and Chaudhary 2002; Xiu Guo and Cheng Kuei 2005; Singh and Mall 2011; Singh and Mall, 2012; Zhi Qiang and XiuGuo2007; Zhang et al., 2012and Xiao-Mei Wang and Xiu-Guo Zhang 2007; 2016.
During working on the foliicolous fungi of Murshidabad district of West Bengal the author had collected two members of Hyphomycetes growing on the living leaves of Calotropis gigantea(Asclepiadaceae) and Jatropha curcus (Euphorbiaceae), which on critical examination found to be two new species of the genus Corynespora.Hence, these two species Corynespora calotropidis Haldar and Corynespora jatrophae Haldar have been created as new taxa.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant specimens with distinct disease symptoms of the parasitic fungi on the leaves of different ages were detached intact from the host plants and they were kept in polythene bags and processed by following standard techniques, (Hawskworth 1974, Savile 1962). The infected leaves having distinct symptoms were collected and dried to make herbarium specimens. Morphological descriptions of the associated fungi are based on the slide preparations mounted on lacto-phenol cotton blue mixture from infected areas of the leaves. Photographs of the infected spots on the host leaves were captured by Sony DSC-HX200, camera and for the examination of fungal structure and spore morphology. Morphotaxonomic study of the fungi was done through the low and high magnification 100x400 of the compound microscope, (Olympus-CX21i FS1 Research Microscope) by using USB INSTA CMOS camera. The microphotographs were stored in electronic format JPEG. Morphotaxonomic determinations of the new taxa were done with the help of most up to date literature and expertise available. Holotypes being deposited at AMH, Agharkar Research Institute (ARI), Pune (MS), India and isotypes retained in the Departmental herbarium for future reference.The nomenclatural novelties were deposited in Myco Bank (www.mycobank.org).
RESULTS AND OUTCOME
Corynespora calotropidis Haldar sp.nov. (Fig.1)
Myco Bank MB 821073
Incidence in early winter spots formed on both the corresponding surface of the lamina,usually circular or sub circular,occasionally angular to irregular, rarely aggregate to coalescent, whitish to grey in the centre surrounded by thick blackish brown to black margin with reddish brown halo,distinct,virulent,scattered,2.5-14.5 mm in diam; Sexual morph: undetermined. Asexual morph: caespituli amphigenous, well developed, centrally effuse, unevenly distributed over the spots, greyish brown to blackish brown; mycelium immersed and superficial,external mycelia hyphae olivaceous or sub hyaline,branched and septate, width not uniform; conidiophore non stromatic, arising singly or in groups (2-4),often closely grouped together to form synnemata in groups of 2-4 long stalks, with up to 4 cylindrical proliferations, light brown to straw coloured, slightly paler towards the tip, almost simple, smooth, thick-walled, distinctly pluriseptate sometimes swollen at the base of the cylindrical proliferations, tip slightly nodose or bluntly rounded,average length of the conidiophore,609.59-1496.04 µm and average breadth, 39.05-60.57 µm; conidiogenous cell monotretic, integrated, terminal, percurrent, cylindrical or doliiform, nodose tip, light to pale olivaceous, bearing conidia acrogenously; conidia solitary, obclavate, light to pale olivaceous or straw coloured, straight to curved, acrogenous, simple, distinctly pseudosepta (5-9),smooth, thick-walled, tip broadly rounded or obtuse or bluntly rounded, base truncate to unthikened hilum,average length of the conidia,991.06-1309.29 µm and average breadth,72.67-86.02 µm.
Specimen examined: On the living leaves of CalotropisgiganteaR.Br.(Fam.Asclepiadaceae).Saktipur,Murshidabad,WestBengal,India;14thOctober,2016;Dinesh Haldar,AMH 9861(Holotype),KNC 0160(Isotype).
Etymology- calotropidis in relation to the host genus.
Review of literature reveals that no species of Corynespora has yet been reported on the present host Calotropis gigantea R.Br. (Fam.Asclepiadaceae). Therefore C. calotropidis as a new taxon of species rank is found to be justified.
Corynespora jatrophaeHaldar sp.nov. (Fig.2)
Myco Bank MB 821082
Incidence in winter, spots formed on lamina, older leaf more affected, scattered, virulent, mostly irregular or circular blackish brown on upper surface and grey olivaceous on lower surface of the corresponding spot, not vein-limited,3-5 mm.in diam. Sexual morph: undetermined Asexual morph: caespituli amphigenous, chiefly epiphyllous, punctiform on the upper surface of the spot,velutinous on lower surface, mycelium external and internal, smooth sometimes branched,septate,thin walled, olivaceous to brown, conidiophores non stromatic arising singly from hyphae, fascicles not dense or in fascicle of 2-4,smooth,thick walled, long, branched to unbranched, erect to slightly bent, straight to flexous, basal cellswollen,macronematous,mononematous,6-18septate, straw colouredaverage length of the conidiophores,819.91-1488.65µm;average breadth 70.77-72.29µm in diam. conidiogenous cells integrated, terminal, monotretic, swollen towards the apex, scars unthikened, conidia solitary, acrogenous, simple, smooth, unbranched, thin walled, cylindrical to obclavatocylindrical,straight to mildly curved, often rostrate,smooth, apices obtuse to rounded, sub hyaline to olivaceous brown, tapered bases truncate, 2-10 pseudosepta, rarely euseptate, scars at the base, sometimes germinating, average length of the conidia,538.85-982.75µm in diam. and breadth(broadest part), 88.79-92.96µm.
Specimen examined: On the living leaves of Jatropha curcus L.,(Fam.Euphorbiaceae),Ring Road, Kashimbazar,Murshidabad,West Bengal,India,6th November 2016,Dinesh Haldar,AMH 9849 (Holotype), KNC 0145(Isotype).
Etymology-jatrophae in relation to the host genus.
It is evident from the literature survey that no Corynespora have been described onthe present host Jatropha curcus L.,(Fam.Euphorbiaceae).Therefore, it merits recognition asa new taxon at species rank.
DISCUSSION
The fungiCorynespora calotropidisHaldar andCorynespora jatrophae Haldarare abundant innature during the month of October to March of the year forming striking symptoms such as spots may beregular or irregular, sometimes concentric rings with brown to dark brown margin, blotch sooty in nature andblight. Spots become sometimes necrotic leaving hole in the leaves. The present study reveals that the Corynespora calotropidis Haldar and Corynespora jatrophae Haldar primarily grows on the leaf blades as well as petioles, stems, inflorescence and fruits. Thecharacteristics of the symptoms depend on the nature of leaves as well as parasites. The effects may vary fromplant to plant and even on same plant. When infection reaches a certain degree of severity, the leaves curl, dryand drop down. Thus it may be concluded that the species of the genusCorynesporagrow vigorously on leavesthroughout the seasons but virulent in winter to early summer.
CONCLUSSION
The newly described taxa Corynespora calotropidis andCorynesporajatrophaeare the primary causes of leaf spot diseases of Calotropis giganteaand Jatropha curcusrespectively. The present work will be helpful to a fungal taxonomist to identify the anamorphic fungal species, host range and phylogenetic relationship between different taxa of leaf inhabiting fungi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is thankful to the Principal, Krishnath College, Murshidabad, West Bengal for providing help during the present work. The author expresses his sincere gratitude to the Curator, AMH-ARI, Pune for depositing holotype of the specimens and to the Curator, Myco Bank, International Mycological Association for providing accession number of the type specimens. The author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in the references of this manuscripts. The author is also thankful to authors / editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.I wish to acknowledge the extended help to Dr.J.B.Ray, my Ph.D.guide for critical comments on the present manuscripts and Dr.S.Bandyopadhyay, Head, Department of Botany, Krishnath College, Murshidabad for the identification of host plants. The author is also grateful to the Director, UGC, for financial support.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24HealthcareCorrelation of Stress with Migraine - A Review
English2326Monika KajalEnglish Manoj MalikEnglish Reena KumariEnglishMigraine is a widespread and debilitating neurological disorder that has been recognized since antiquity. The World Health Organization has listed migraine as a significant public health concern and major cause of years of life with disability. It is aperiodic disorder that comprises paroxysmal and blinding hemicranial pain, nausea/vomiting, photophobiaand phonophobia. Stress is often linked to the occurrence of migraine headaches. Stress may interact with migraine in several ways that predisposed to migraine attacks. Stress is considered as a most common trigger for their attacks and high level of stress are reported in migraine patients. Migraine attacks themselves can act as a stressor, thereby potentially leading to a vicious cycle of increasing migraine frequency. This review provides an overview that both stress and migraine are reciprocally related i.e. cyclically influencing each other across time.
EnglishHeadache, Epidemiology, Trigger factorsIntroduction:
Migraine is one of the most common neurological headache disorder and cause of significant disability for many patients1 with substantial personal and societal burden2. The term migraine has been derived from Galen’s usage of hemicranias, to describe “a periodic disorder that comprises paroxysmal and blinding hemicranial pain, vomiting, photophobia, recurrence at regular intervals, and relief by darkness and sleep”3. Migraine is an inherited and episodic disorder that involves sensory sensitivity.
Epidemiology:
The prevalence of migraine has been extensively studied4. Migraine is ranked 19th among all diseases world-wide that cause disability. The global prevalence of the adult members of the population with an active headache disorder is 11% for migraine5. The prevalence of migraine is age and gender-dependent6. It is more common in boys than in girls before puberty. As adolescence approaches, the incidence and prevalence of migraine increases more rapidly in girls than in boys. In women, prevalence increases throughout childhood and early adult life until approximately age of 40 years, after which it declines4. It is most commonly experienced by individuals between the ages of 15 and 55 years and 70% - 80% of migraineurs have a family history of migraine7. Prevalence rates of International Headache Society - defined migraine are relatively consistent in Western countries, varying from 4% to 9.5% in men and from 11.2% to 25% in women21. In United States population prevalence of migraine is approximately 18% in women and 6% in men that affects 28 million Americans. The data of United Kingdom shows that the overall prevalence of migraine ranged from 3.7% to 4.9%. In Saudi Arabia prevalence for migraine in subjects aged 6 to 15 years was 6.2%. Migraine prevalence was inversely related socioeconomic status4. The prevalence of migraine in London was 28.7%.in women and 19.5% in men. In the Isles of Scilly the prevalence was 23.7 and 15.2% respectively8. In India prevalence was greater among females 31.6% than males 18.5% for migraine subjects aged between 35-45 years in both genders22. In the global burden of disease 1990, these disorders accounted for 10.5% of the worldwide from all diseases and injuries and the re-estimate of global burden of disease 2000 was 12.3% and it is evident that this burden will increase rapidly in the future, with projections indicating 15% by the year 202021.Global figures reveals a rapid rise in migraine, it is shown in figure 1.
Types:
International Headache Society has laid down the criteria which classifies migraine on the basis of International Classification of Headache Disorders9. Classic migraine (migraine with aura) denotes the syndrome of headache associated with characteristic premonitory sensory, motor, or visual symptoms; common migraine (migraine without aura) has no focal neurologic symptoms precede the headache. Complicated migraine is generally describing migraine associated with dramatic focal neurologic features, thus overlapping with classic migraine3. Migraine may be divided in to 2 broad groups based on the number of headache days. If attacks occur less than 15 days per month then termed as episodic migraine (or simply migraine), while headaches occur on 15 or more days per month the terms chronic or transformed migraine20.
Etiology:
Migraine is a complex genetic disorder with heritability estimates as high as 50%11 and associated with chromosome 1 and 19. Chromosome 19p13 gene mutation is linked to CACNA1A (calcium voltage-gated channel subunit alpha 1 A) and chromosome 1q23 gene mutation linked to Na/K+ ATPase. Dysfunction of neuronal calcium channel might impair serotonin release and predispose patients to migraine12,13. Psychophysical and neurophysiological studies have provided clear statement that the migraine sufferer’s brain stays in a continual state of neuronal hyperexcitabilty7. Migraine pain is caused by inflammation and dilation of meningeal arteries located within dura mater as stated in trigeminovascular hypothesis. Migraine attacks may be precipitated by a number of constitutional and environmental factors, which are often termed migraine triggers1,17. Common migraine triggers are stress1,10,14,15,16,17, hormonal changes in women1,15, certain foods (cheese, chocolate, fruit)1,10,15, missing meals1,15, sleep disturbances, weather changes, alcohol1,10,15, minor trauma10, strong smells, bright light10,15, neck pain, exercise, sexual activity, smoking, heat15. Frequencies of triggers percentage are given in figure 215.
Signs and symptoms:
The sign and symptoms of migraine seem to differ with age. Migraine attacks in children and adolescents differ from those in adults, as the younger often have attacks of shorter duration and bilateral location3. Migraine attack consists of four phases that include premonitory prodrome, aura, headache and postdrome7. Frequency of attacks varies enormously, one or two attacks per months is a common pattern. Repeated episodes of headache (4-72 h) with any two of the features i.e. unilateral, throbbing, worsened by movement, moderate or severe or any one i.e. nausea/vomiting, photophobia and phonophobia are the most characteristics clinical phenotype of migraine23. Typically pain is unilateral and significant number of cases becomes bilateral often, late in an attack. Headache build up to maximum over about 30 minutes and last from hours to one or two days. In majority of cases nausea occurs but in about 50% is there vomiting. Vasomotor changes includes pale face, cold extremity, may be subconjunctival hemorrhage or bruising around eyes. Visual disturbance usually homonymous lasts for 15 to 20 minutes. Symptoms of paraesthesiae and numbness occur in cortical distribution, involving the periphery of the limbs and circumoral region. The lip, face, and tongue may be subsequently affected on one side on one or both sides. Aphasia is usually of the expressive type and accompanied by dysgraphia. The characteristic feature of migraine attacks is the slow speed of the developing neurological disturbance at a rate of about 3 mm/minutes10.
Discussion:
Stress is viewed as a transactional process between an individual and his or her environment in which the individual makes a response to an internal or external constraint. It is trigger for migraine attacks, and is present in approximately 70% of individuals. High levels of stress are reported in migraine patients, particularly in those suffering from chronic daily migraine. Both endogenous (eg, hormone) and exogenous (eg, physical stressors [eg, light]), or psychological stressors add to the burden of the disease. Emotional or physical trauma (eg, abuse, particularly in childhood), and socioeconomic or social stress are examples of psychological stressors16. A study done by Kelman L et al 2007, evaluate and define the triggers of the acute migraine attack. One thousand two hundred and seven patients were evaluated, of whom 75.9% reported triggers (40.4% infrequently, 26.7% frequently and 8.8% very frequently). Study concluded that the trigger frequencies of stress in migraine were 79.7% and triggers were more likely to be associated with a more florid acute migraine attack and stress was one of the most common trigger15.Biology of stress and migraine may be linked on several levels. The first of these is the physiological stress response, which involves both the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, and sympathetic nervous system including adrenal medulla. Activation of both these system leads to the behavioral and physiological changes observed in response to stress, and these in turn could potentially trigger migraine attacks1. A study done by Martenson M.E et al 2009, indicate that the neural circuitry responsible for stress-induced hyperalgesia. The dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus is a critical component of the central mechanisms mediating neuroendocrine, cardiovascular and thermogenic responses to various stressors. It also contributes to stress-induced hyperalgesia through direct and indirect connections with the rostral ventromedial medulla, a region long implicated in descending control of nociception24. Sauro K.M et al 2009, reported that chronic stress leads to hyperalgesia may include potential mechanism of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and the µ-opioid receptor activation. Another way that chronic stress may physiologically impact headache is through alteration of the immune system in such a way that pain transmission is facilitated at the neuronal level and inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, and nitrous oxide may act as pain mediators that can sensitize the pain matrix1. Schoonman G.G et al 2007, studied the temporal relationship between changes in stress-related parameters and onset of a migraine attack. Study concluded that stress-sensitive patients, in contrast to non-sensitive patients, may perceive more stress in the days before an impending migraine attack14.WacogneC et al 2003, study investigated the intensity of stress, anxiety and depression. Stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Questionnaire, and anxiety and depression using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Study concluded that stress is a primordial factor in the triggering and perpetuation of migraine attacks. Women and men display differences in the prevalence of many disorders that could be considered to be stress- related, including migraine18. A study was done by Hedborg K et al 2011, Study was performed on 150 persons, 106 women and 44 man, suffering from at least two migraine attacks a month. All of them answered validated questionnaires regarding personality traits of Swedish universities scale of personality, life events, and perceived ongoing stress. There were high mean scores for psychic and somatic anxiety in women. Study showing that stress is an important factor in migraine. Stress susceptibility, life events, and concomitant psychosomatic illnesses should be considered important when evaluating individuals with migraine, and gender aspects need to be taken into account17. Some studies shows temporal relationship with stress in migraine. A study done by Holm J.E et al 1997, objective of study was examined daily temporal relationships between stress, cognitive appraisal, coping, and migraine. Studied concluded that stress and migraine are reciprocally related (i.e. cyclically influencing each other across time) along with cognitive appraisal and coping are also related to migraine activity in reciprocal fashion19.
Conclusion:
Based on comprehensive literature review it is concluded that stress is a major trigger for migraine attacks and high level of stress are reported in migraine patients. Both stress and migraine are reciprocally related i.e. cyclically influencing each other across time. Thus stress management approaches like cognitive behavioral therapy, various forms of biofeedback and relaxation training can also be incorporated during migraine treatment along with pharmacotherapy.
Acknowledgement:
I hereby acknowledge my co-authors and Jaspreet Kaur for constantly encouraging and supporting and helping me find my literature for this review article. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Source of Funding: None
Conflict of interest: There is no conflict of interest.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1271http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1271
Sauro K.M, Becker W.J. The stress and migraine interaction.Headache. 2009;1378-1386.
Lipton R.B, Buse D.C, Hall C.B, Tennen H, Defreitas T.A, Borkowski T.M et al. Reduction in perceived stress as a migraine trigger. Neurology. 2014;82:1395-1401.
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International Headache Society. The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition (beta version).Cephalalgia. 2013;33(9):613-808.
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Pietrobon D, Moskowitz M.A. Pathophysiology of migraine. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2013;75:365-391.
Bussone G. Pathophysiology of migraine. 2004;25:239-241.
Cutrer F.M et al. Pathophysiology of migraine. Semin Neurol. 2010;30:120-130.
Schoonnman G.G, Evers D.J, Ferrari M.D. Is stress a trigger factor for migraine. Psychoneuro endocrinology. 2007;32(5):532-538.
Kelman L. The triggers or participants of the acute migraine attack. Cephalalgia. 2007;27(5):394-402.
Maleki N, Becerra Lino, Borsook D. Migraine: Maladaptive brain responses to stress. Headache. 2012;52:102-106.
Hedborg K, Anderberg U.M, Muhr C. Stress in migraine: personality-dependent vulnerability, life events, and gender are of significance. Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences. 2011;116:187-199.
Wacogne C, Lacoste J.P, Guillibert E, Hugues F.C, Jeunne C.L. Stress, anxiety, depression and migraine. Cephalalgia. 2003;23(6):451-455.
Holm J.E, Lokken C, Myers T.C. Migraine and stress: A daily examination of temporal relationship in women migraineurs. Headache. 1997;37:553-558.
Bigal M.E, Serrano D, Buse D, Scher A, Stewart W.F, Lipton R.B. Acute migraine medications and evolution from episodic to chronic migraine: A longitudinal population- based study. Headache. 2008;48:1157-1168.
Leonardi M, Steiner T.J, Scher A.T, Lipton R.B.The global burden of migraine: measuring disability in headache disorders with WHO’s Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). J Headache Pain. 2005;6:429–440.
Kulkarni G, Rao G, Gururaj G, Subbakrishna D.K, Steiner T, Stovner L.J. The prevalence and burden of migraine in india: results of a population-based study in Karnataka state. The Journal of Headache and Pain. 2014;15(1):18.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24HealthcareEffect on Memory and Cognitive Function in Patients Suffering from Stroke - A Review
English2731Preeti SangwanEnglish Jaspreet KaurEnglish Annu MalikEnglishWe examined the evidence for widely held clinical beliefs about effect on memory and cognitive function after stroke, conducting narrative review. We sought to determine whether stroke patients experience problem with memory and cognitive function and which aspects of memory and cognitive functions are affected. The authentication for both memory and cognitive function dysfunction with relevance to stroke are mixed in this review. Various studies which are involved in this review are taken from google scholar, pubmed and springer link. The data is collected mainly through various research articles and reviews. Data collected from various epidemiological studies shows that global burden of stroke is high and India like other developing countries is in the centre of stroke outbreak. Correlation of memory and cognitive impairment is also included in this review. The data collected through various studies involving assessment scales provide significant evident of memory and cognitive impairment after stroke.
EnglishCognitive impairment, Epidemiology, Correlation, ConsequencesIntroduction:
“A stroke is a clinically defined syndrome of expeditiously developing symptoms and signs of focal loss of cerebral function with no obvious cause other than that of vascular origin, but the loss of function can at times be global. Symptoms last more than 24 hours or lead to death1. In daily life, besides physical handicaps the cognitive disorders can also come up with disability2. The risk factor for impaired cognitive functioning is cerebrovascular disease. If specifically hindered cognitive functions are considered, 50-70% of stroke patients are found to be affected depending on age3,4,5. Those patients who abide cognitively unmutilated after their index stroke, hospital-based and population-based studies have disclosed a remarkable risk for developing delayed dementia6,7. As a direct result of a stroke incident, twenty five percent of stroke left overs have dementia8,9,10.
Epidemiology:
The global load of stroke is high, incorporating of increasing incidence, disability, mortality, Adjusted Life- Years, and economic impact, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. According to World Heart Federation, 15 million people worldwide agonize a stroke every year11. Globally, it is estimated that stroke is the second prime cause of death above the age of 60 years, and the fifth prime cause of death in people aged 15 to 59 years old and it is considered less common below 40 years. According to the American Heart Association, collated to white people, black people have nearly twice the risk of a first –ever stroke and a much higher death rate from stroke. According to Taylor FC et al (2012), the estimated age-adjusted prevalence rate for stroke12, is as shown in figure 1.1.
The summarized data of Stroke Epidemiology, according to the ‘World Health Organisation-STEPS Stroke protocol’ during the first decade of the 21st century in Mumbai13, Trivandrum14 and Kolkata15, has shown in figure 1.3.
Stroke is also more likely to influence people if they are obese, aged 55 or older, lack of exercise, drink excessively, have a personal or family history of stroke, stress and depression smoke or use illicit drugs, heart ailments such as recent Myocardial Infarction, atrial fibrillation and presence of blood fat molecules called apolipoproteins.
There are three chief kinds of stroke,16: 1) Ischemic stroke 2) Hemorrhagic stroke 3) Transient ischemic attacks also referred to as mini-strokes.
Etiology:
Narrowing or blocking of arteries can lead to Ischemic Stroke in the brain. It is the most common type of stroke, resulting in around 85% of strokes. Blood clots can lead to these blockages. Bursting or leaking of blood vessels in and around the brain can lead to Hemorrhagic stroke. Hypertension, trauma, blood-thinning medications and aneurysms are the conditions which can lead to rupturing of blood vessels. The most frequent form of hemorrhagic stroke is Intracerebral Hemorrhage and the second type of hemorrhagic stroke is Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. In Transient Ischemic Attack the flow of blood to the brain is only shortly interrupted.. They serve as deterrant signs for future stroke17.A study performed to assess ‘Evolution of cognitive dysfunction after stroke and risk factors for delayed progression’ concluded that cognition is rather stable for 2 years after stroke. Age, poly-pharmacy, previous cognitive decline and hypotension during admission are risk factors for its development18.
The symptoms of memory loss and vascular dementia involve slow movement and thinking, lack of attention and inability to do simple tasks. The symptoms of dementia after stroke can be masked by more evident post stroke conditions such as paralysis, depression, blindness. Other consequences of stroke are: Confusion, Headache, Numbness, trouble with seeing, trouble with walking, bladder or bowel control problems, depression, weakness or paralysis on one or both the sides of body, trouble controlling or expressing emotions. In order to remember the signs of stroke acronym F.A.S.T. is a way, which shows Face drooping; Arm weakness; Speech difficulty, if these symptoms seen then it is the time to call for emergency services19, 20.
Assessment Scales:
Various scales which can be used for assessment of memory and cognitive functioning in stroke patients are: Wechsler Memory scale- Revised21,22, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale –Revised 23 ,Mini Mental State Examination24,28, Scafold Objective Recognition Test 25,28 , Recognition Memory Test26,28 , FuldObject Memory Evaluation27.
Memory:
“Memory is the faculty of mind by which information is encoded, stored or retrieved”. Memory is essential to experience and related to limbic systems, it is the withholding of information over time for the determination of influencing future action. Usually, memory comprises sensory processor, short- term (or working) memory, and long term memory .Explicit and Implicit functions of memory are also understood as declarative and non-declarative systems. By information type, there are Topographic memory and Flashbulb memories. By temporal direction, retrospective and prospective memory29.
Correlation with memory and cognitive function:
Hypo-perfusion and functional deactivation in neighboring and distant areas of brain are associated with cognitive dysfunction in the acute stage of stroke. Both pathological ups and downs of glucose concentrations may influence cognition30.A study performed by Glenn T. Stebbins et al, titled, ‘Gray Matter Atrophy in patients with Ischemic Stroke with cognitive impairment’ concluded that there is a central role for the thalamus and lesser role for other cortical regions in the development of cognitive impairment after ischemic stroke.31
General cerebral atrophy has also been related to the development of cognitive impairment after stroke31. Severe white matter hyper-intensities are related to global cognitive dysfunction. A study performed by Emma J. Burton et al, titled ‘White matter hyper-intensities are associated with impairment of memory, attention, and global cognitive performance in older stroke patients’ concluded that in older stroke patients, cognitive processing speed and performance on measures of attention are remarkably related to White Matter Hyper-intensity volume, particularly in frontal lobe regions, whereas memory dysfunction is related to the volume of temporal lobe White Matter Hyperintensity32.
Memory impairment has been reported to be one of the most common cognitive deficits experienced by leftovers of stroke 33.Awareness of the lateral asymmetry, termed “hemispheric specialization”, is critically important for understanding the nature of memory impairment following unilateral brain damage33. Memory deficit may be an important predictor for cognitive decline34.
Discussion:
Cognitive impairment occurs frequently after stroke, commonly involving memory, orientation, attention and language. Some studies which shows memory and cognition decline in stroke patients included which are: A study performed to evaluate the ‘Incidence and relationship of post-stroke dementia to the influence of pre-stroke cognitive decline’ concluded that the risk of Post-stroke dementia is high, and enhanced in patients with pre-stroke cognitive shrinkage, with about one-third of patients summiting the basis for Alzheimer Disease and two-thirds meeting the basis for Vascular Dementia. These inferences confirm that, in stroke patients, an underlying degenerative pathology may play a role in the evolution of Post-stroke dementia35. Another study performed in order to investigate ‘Cognitive impairment after stroke’ concluded that stroke-associated cognitive impairment is encircled by many issues with respect to prevalence, relevance heterogeneity and uniqueness. There is no consistent phenotype because strokes can rap any part of the brain. Moreover, it is difficult to establish a causal link between stroke and dementia, or to exclude the possibility that Alzheimer disease is responsible for the cognitive impairment36.
Another study is performed to detect the ‘ Cognitive functioning after stroke’ concluded that few patients become demented after stroke, and most cognitive disturbances are in the field of mental speed and calculation37. Late emergence of Cognitive dysfunction following stroke also occurs in neonatal stroke in order to detect this a study performed by Robyn Westmacott et al, ‘Late emergence of cognitive deficits after Unilateral Neonatal Stroke’ concluded that the children with unilateral neonatal stroke, particularly males, are at increased risk for emerging deficits in higher-level cognitive skills during the school years38.
A combination of diffusion-weighted imaging, T1 and T2-weighted images has been used to determine tissue aberrations in Stroke patients39.Therapies or medicines almost never fully restore memory after stroke. However, many people do recover at the very least some memory instinctively after stroke20.A study performed by Fregni et al, reported that left prefrontal anodal stimulation for 10 minutes at 1 mA in healthy participants increased working memory performance40.A study performed ‘To investigate whether anodal trans-cranial direct current stimulation over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex affected the working memory performance of patients after a stroke’ concluded that the anodal trans-cranial direct current stimulation over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was related to increased working memory interpretation as indexed by the recognition accuracy in patients after a stroke41.Now- a- days, mnemonics either plays a little role in treatment program or is not used at all. Memory impaired patients benefit more from images generated by the experimenter than by those self-produced. These findings decrease the practical value of mnemonics because rehabilitation is focused at administering interventions to be used independently from therapy setting42.
A study performed to examine the ‘Prognosis of acute cognitive disorders post-stroke, and to evaluate which clinical factors estimate domain-specific cognitive recovery’ concluded that recovery in visual perception/construction (83%) and visual memory (78%) was the most common. Cognitive recovery is related to age, lesion volume, lesion location, preexistent ability and diabetes mellitus30.
Conclusion:
Like other evolving countries, India is in the centre of a stroke outbreak. There is an enormous burden of stroke with remarkable geographical variations. Through various studies involving various assessment scales also it is concluded that stroke can lead to various memory and cognitive dysfunctions. Stroke allied cognitive dysfunction is encircled by many difficulties with respect to relevance, prevalence, heterogeneity and uniqueness.
Acknowledgement:
I hereby acknowledge my co-authors for constantly encouraging and supporting and helping me find my literature for this review article. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Source of funding: Nil
Conflict of interest: Nil
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1272http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1272
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24HealthcareA Statistical Analysis of Trends in Mortality from Major Infectious Diseases of Global burden, 1990-2015
English3238M. N. MegeriEnglish H. H. BudihalEnglish Manoj Kumar G.EnglishBackground: Infectious diseases are the world’s foremost cause of death that presents one of the most significant health and safety challenges facing the global community. Studying about infectious diseases has become an important aspect because of its unexpected fluctuations in mortality rates and changing the demographic scenario of any nation.
Aim: This paper provides an outlook in the trends of mortality rates of major infectious diseases (ID’s) at the global level.
Data and Methodology: The data collected from Institute for Health Matrix and Evaluation (IHME) and has been tested for the normality and homogeneity of residuals by Shapiro-Wilk test and standard Normal Homogeneity test respectively. Joinpoint Regression analysis was carried out to estimates of Annual Percent Change (APC) and trends of ID’s
Results: The result shows a gradual decrement from 1990 to 2015 in the death rates from ID’s. But in case of HIV with TB, HIV/AIDS and Malaria, death rates increased till 2004 and later it was decreased gradually along with the crude mortality rates. The joinpoint regression method also identifies different inflation points to the different ID’s.
Discussion and Conclusion: The diseases like Lower respiratory infections shows highest death rate among other major ID’s mortality followed by diarrheal diseases and drop off in recent years and least rates are seen in Intestinal Infectious Diseases. The implementation of health policies by WHO and advancement of technology in health science reduces the mortality rates of Infectious diseases.
EnglishJoinpoint Regression, Infectious diseases, HIV, TBIntroduction:
Infectious diseases (ID’s) are the important contributing factor to the human mortality and morbidity in recent times. Today ID’s still account for the large proportion of deaths and disability globally and in certain regions remain the important cause of ill health. The term ‘Infectious diseases’ is not refers to the homogenous set of illness rather to a broad group of widely varying conditions. The relative and absolute important of particular infection or group of infections varies drastically across regions.
ID’s leading causes of death of children and adolescent, and one of the leading causes for the adults in the worldwide. ID’s have spread across populations and regions throughout history and it is likely that newly emerging ID’s will continue to be identified. In recent years, Ebola outbreaks in West Africa have killed the 11315 people of six countries and rapidly became the deadliest occurrence of disease. The first case of Ebola was reported in March 2014 but since it’s discovered in 1976 (WHO, 2015).
The ID’s has been now geographically spreading much faster than at any time in history because of high mobility, interdependent and interconnected society. This result that ID’s have become causes of serious public health issues and their threat has been increasing, (WHO, 2007). Some ID’s have emerging and re-emerging with different biological structure and more viral than previous in new location because of environmental and climate change, human behavior, new technologies, microbial adoptions and host impaired immunity (MacLehose L et al., 2002).
In high- income countries, deaths from infectious diseases are overwhelmingly due to respiratory infections and HIV/AIDS. In sub-Saharan Africa, respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria account for roughly similar proportions of total infectious disease deaths (Murray and Lopez, 1997). An analysis of Global Burden of Disease Study (GBDS) data concludes that the poorest 20% of the world’s population experiences a far higher burden of infectious disease compared to the remaining 80% of the world’s population (Gwatkin et al., 1999).
In south Asia, infectious diseases are major cause of children deaths and disability. Among the estimated 3.7 million deaths of children in the year 2000 there were two third of deaths of children due to infections such as Pneumonia, Diarrheal and Measles (Black RE et al., 2003). Of the overall burden of deaths related to infectious diseases in the South Asia around 63% are in children aged under 5 years (Lopez AD, 1993).
Figure 1: Mortality trend of infectious diseases from 1990-2015.
The study focuses on major infectious diseases like HIV and TB, HIV/ AIDS, Tuberculosis, Lower respiratory infections, Intestinal infectious diseases, Malaria and Diarrheal where these selected infectious diseases accounted for approximately 18 per cent of deaths among the deaths due to all causes (Infectious and Non Infectious diseases) in the year 1990 as shown in figure 1. But this per cent is declined to 13 per cent in the year 2015. We have accounted the deaths due to infectious and parasitic diseases and infectious causes from remaining grouping. Of these diseases, selected seven ID’s accounted for approximately 66 per cent in 2015 increased by 11 per cent from the year 1990. Out of all the infectious diseases classified by WHO in the form of International Classification of Diseases (ICD) these seven infectious diseases plays a significance role in mortality rates. Hence it is necessary to study the trends of Mortality rates of these seven ID’s global level.
This paper aims to study the trend and pattern of seven selected ID’s. First section briefs about the introduction and significance of ID’s, section 2 discusses about Methods and Materials used, section 3 focuses on results and discussion and last section concludes the study.
Methods and Materials:
This paper is attempt to study selected seven major infectious diseases globally viz. Lower respiratory infections, Diarrheal diseases, Tuberculosis, HIV/ AIDS, Malaria, Intestinal infectious diseases and HIV with TB. The data on deaths due to these above mentioned ID’s is collected from Institute for Health Matrix and Evaluation (IHME) in the form of time series data from 1990 to 2013.
The assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance of residuals which are obtained after applying the model are tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test for normality and Standard Normal Homogeneity test respectively. The Joinpoint regression analysis is used in the study to analyze the trends of incidence and mortality rates of any Infectious diseases which give the Annual Percentage Change (APC) and Points of Inflation. This study can fit the joinpoint regression model to the data that allow for testing of whether an apparent change in trend is statistically significant.
This model assumes a linear trend between joinpoints and continuity at the joinpoints. It is mainly used to identify the points of inflation in the trends and to detect the statistical significant change when changes occurred in the trends. This model has also same underlying assumptions as simple regression. If constant variance of error is assumed then estimates the parameters of joinpoint model with ordinary least squares and for non constant variance i.e. variance of errors depends on time then applied the weighted least square method to estimates the parameters.
There are three major decisions in any joinpoint regression analysis
The form of the mean function (Data distribution: Normal or Poisson; Equation: linear or log linear)
The location of the joinpoints given number of joinpoints, and
The optimal joinpoint model
The first step is to find out the form of data. The next step in fitting the model is to determine the range of the number of joinpoints to be tested, usually between 0 and 4. Then locations of the each given number of the joinpoints can be determined by using grid search method. This method creates a “grid” of all possible locations for joinpoints specified by the settings, and tests the error sum of square (SSE) at each one to find the best possible fit. The third step is to find the final model i.e. the optimal number of joinpoints and the optimal locations of related joinpoints using the permutation test method (Jiang et al., 2010).
Kim et al., (2000) proposed a series of permutation tests to determine the best number of change-points in segmented line regression. In choosing the better model between the one with change-points and the alternated with change-points, Kim and others proposed the Monte Carlo simulation approach for permutation tests based on F-statistic:
Results:
Trends of mortality rates of selected seven ID are visualized by joinpoint regression analysis and have identified joinpoints with annual percentage change. Table 1 represents the APC’s for different time period of the LRI, Diarrheal diseases, TB and IID, there is only one change point occurred in the mortality trend of these four diseases when both sexes combined. During the period 1990 to 2015 for the total (both sexes), LRI disease have accounted highest number of deaths among the all other 7 selected ID’s followed by the Diarrheal diseases and HIV/AIDS. The IID’s has counted minimum number of deaths during the year 2015 followed by HIV/TB.
When sex wise comparison is made, male mortality is higher than female mortality in the all seven IDs except Malaria as shown in the Table 1 and Table 2. Female death rates have decreased sharply than the male death rates in the study period from 1990 to 2015 but in case of HIV/AIDS and co-infection with TB female death rates increased sharply. Although mortality rates of all ID’s showed overall decrement from the year 1990 to 2015 for the both sexes except HIV/AIDS and co-infection with TB.
Table 2 represents the APC’s for different time period of the HIV/AIDS, Malaria and HIV with TB co-infection, there are three change points have observed in HIV/AIDS mortality trend and two change points observed in Malaria and HIV with TB co-infection mortality trend when both sexes combined.
Joinpoint regression model identify 3 JP’s at HIV/AIDS mortality trend and 2 JP’s at malaria and HIV/TB co-infection mortality trend in total (both sex) population. These three diseases approximately followed the same trend during the study period, 1990-2015 i.e., increased mortality rates up to 2004, later decreased. The initial increase of HIV/AIDS mortality may due to unsafe sex, sharing needles and injection drug use. The morality rates have extremely increased with different APCs with statistically significant till the year 2005.
Gender wise comparison is made; 3 JP’s at HIV/AIDS mortality trend and 2 JP’s at malaria and HIV/TB co-infection mortality trend in both male and female population. The higher mortality can be seen in male than the female population in case of HIV/AIDS and HIV/TB co-infection. But in case of malaria, female mortality is higher than the male mortality. But both sexes have equally exposed to the malaria disease as per the available evidence but pregnant women and pregnant women with HIV are in high risk.
Indicates Male mortality rates Indicates Female mortality rates
Discussion:
Joinpoint regression model identifies one JP at LRI, Diarrheal, TB and IID mortality trend in total (both sex) population. All ID’s gradually decreased throughout the study period, 1990-2015. All the changes occurred in trends are statistically significant. Gender wise comparison made; LRI and IID mortality trend have two JP’s in the both male and female population and one JP at Diarrheal and TB mortality trend. High mortality is observed in the male population than the female mortality.
This gender inequality may be due to lifestyle, behavior and socioeconomic difference between the males and females (Matthew E. F et al., 2007, Neyrolles O et al., 2009, Sevilimedu V et al., 2016).
Late 1990’s, introduction of Antiretroviral therapy played a significant role in increasing the life expectancy of HIV/AIDS patients and reducing the risk of TB infection in people living with HIV. The prevention of Mother to child transmission strategy is also great success in reducing the infant mortality due to HIV/AIDS disease.
Conclusion:
At present, while non-communicable diseases causes more death and disability than communicable diseases in the world as a whole communicable and related disease remain the leading cause of death and disability among the global poor. LRI is leading cause of mortality among under age 5 years and severe impact on the health of populations at all ages also. Lower respiratory infections remained world’s deadly infectious disease till to the date followed by the diarrheal disease.
The trends of mortality rates for selected seven ID’s are showing decrease through the study period 1990-2015, HIV/AIDS , HIV with TB and malaria mortality rates only increased up to the year 2004, after 2004 this mortality rates also sharply decreasing.
In the late 1990s, highly active antiretroviral therapy was developed. This therapy was able to reduce the HIV viral replication. This new treatment effected in major changes in the mortality rate for AIDS in specific age group. This may be the reason to reduction in mortality rates of ID’s trend.
The risk of developing TB is high to who infected by HIV than non HIV population. Currently co-infection leads to more likely to the fatal and so hard to treat. Most of the people living with HIV who are also infected by TB have receiving ART therapy; this may results that decrement in mortality of HIV with TB co-infection in recent years. Directly observed treatment short course (DOTS) strategies by WHO has played a significant role in identification, diagnose, prevention of TB and improvement in longevity of HIV patients who have also TB infection. These may the main reason for reduction in TB mortality rates as well as HIV-TB co-infection mortality rates.
LRI, Diarrheal diseases, IID and Malaria diseases have been prevented by practising good lifestyle and improvement in socioeconomic status, improvement in sanitation, personal hygiene of the people and good food to the society.
Sex is considerable epidemical factor for the numerous diseases. Sex difference played an important role in making adequate health policies and strategies. Both sexes have not equally susceptible to the all infectious diseases because it dependence on the lifestyle, behavioural and socioeconomic factors of males and females. In selected seven IDS, male population is more susceptible to LRI, diarrheal diseases, TB, HIV/AIDS, IID and HIV/TB co-infections.
Decreases in the mortality rates of selected ID’s may be because of advancement of Science and Technology which improvement in the medical facilities, awareness about the ID’s to the people due to globalization. Proper implementations of health policies by UN and their national Governments led to downfall in the trends of mortality rates. Despite a decrease in deaths caused by infectious diseases that was interrupted by HIV/AIDS at beginning of the 1990s, infectious diseases continue to be a major cause of death, which is a huge challenge to the public health.
Acknowledgement:
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Conflict of Interest: Nil
Source of Funding: RFSMS fellowships from UGC New Delhi
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1273http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1273
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24HealthcareTo Mask the Bitter Taste of Rizatriptan Benzoate and Develop Water Dispersible Tablets
English3948Chilate Vikrant C.English Godbole Mangesh D.English Sonaye Harsha V.English Doifode C.A.EnglishIntroduction: Rizatriptan benzoate is anti migraine drug. Report indicates that, it has very bitter taste, which deters its use in geriatrics patient thus not comply with prescription that results in high incidence of non-compliance and ineffective therapy.
Aim: To mask the bitter taste of Rizatriptan benzoate and develop water dispersible tablets.
Methodology: The sweetener like aspartame was use in variable ratio with drug. Physical mixture of Rizatriptan benzoate with Aspartame (1:5 ratio) were rated most effective (0.4) by the panel of tastes. The other used sweeteners did not prove to be very effective for masking of bitter taste as indicated by the high rating of bitterness score 2-3 and 3-4 by panel of human tastes. Water dispersible tablets of Rizatriptan benzoate was formulated by direct compression method using physical mixture of drug: aspartame with superdisintegrants viz. sodium starch glycolate, croscarmilose sodium and crospovidone in variable ratios.
Result: All the formulation batches passed the weight variation test, disintegration test and uniformity of dispersion test and offered good mechanical strength.
Discussion: The combination of sodium starch glycolate with crospovidone in the ratio of 1:2 given best result (disintegration time 19.18 sec), the disintegration time was decreased from 32 to 19 sec.
Conclusion: All formulation batches released more than 98% of drug within 30 min.
EnglishWater dispersible tablet, Rizatriptan benzoate, Aspartame, Sodium starch glycolate, Cross povidone, Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, Magnesium stearate, AerosilIntroduction:
Since the development cost of a new drug molecule is very high, efforts are now being made to focus on the development of new drug dosage forms for existing drugs with improved safety and efficacy, bioavailability together with reduced dosing frequency and the production of more cost effective dosage forms. Drug dissolution and absorption as well as onset of clinical effect and drug bioavailability may be significantly greater than those observed from conventional dosage forms.2 The tablet is just one of the many forms that an oral drug can take such as syrups, elixirs, suspensions and emulsions. It consists of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (A.P.I.) with biologically inert excipients in a compressed solid form.3 Dispersible tablets offer advantage for patients who have difficulty in swallowing. Patients for whom chewing is difficult or painful can use these new tablets easily. Dispersible tablets can be used easily for pediatric patients who have lost their primary teeth but do not have full use of their permanent teeth.4
Challenges to develop water dispersible tablets
Avoid increase in tablet size
Rapid disintegration of tablet
Have sufficient mechanical strength
Minimum or no residue in mouth
Protection from moisture
Good package design
Compatible with taste masking technology
Not affected by drug properties5
There is need for non-invasive delivery systems persists due to patients poor acceptance of and compliance with, existing delivery regimes, limited market size for drug companies and drug uses, coupled with high cost of disease management. 6
Materials and METHODS:
Rizatriptan benzoate was received as gift sample from Alkem Labs. Ltd. Mumbai. Kyron, Microcrystalline cellulose, Sodium starch glycolate, Cross povidone, Aspartame, Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, Magnesium stearate, Aerosil were gift samples from Alkem Labs. Ltd. Mumbai.
Characterization of drug and excipients
Characterization of Drug:
a) Appearance : Recorded by physical texture of drug
b) Organoleptic Properties: Taste of sample was tested by panel of tastes following physical properties of drug were studied
c) Determination of melting point: Determined using glass capillary method by using thermometer10
d) Solubility analysis:
Excess quantities of drug were added in to the 5 ml of each of distilled water, phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) and 1.0 M HCl contained in 25 ml glass vials and were shaken at constant temperature 37 ±1oC over a period of 24 hr by recording absorbance using respective medium as blank15
e) Loss on Drying: Accurately about 1 gm Rizatriptan was weighed and the powder was kept in oven for 6 hr at 105oC. At interval of 2hr the moisture content was calculated15
Analytical Method
A validated Double Beam UV Spectrophotometer Model No. UV 1700 , Shimandzu using pH 6.8 phosphate buffer in the range of 400 nm to 200 nm for the estimation of drug
Characterization of Bulk Drug and Effect of Various Formulation Excipients
The infrared (IR) spectrum obtained FTIR Spectrophotometer Model -8300 (Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) was compared with that of the standard. To study the compatibility of various formulation excipients with Rizatriptan benzoate , solid admixtures were stored at 40 ± 20C temperature with relative humidity of RH 75 ± 5 % for 30 days.
Determination of λmax in UV range
Solution of 50 μg/ml concentrations was scanned in the range of 400 nm to 200 nm using distilled water as blank and λmax was noted. Similarly, the λmax values for solutions of drug in 0.1M HCl and phosphate buffer pH 6.8 were determined using corresponding solution as blank.
Thermal behavior by differential scanning calorimetric
Heating at the rate of 100C/min in the range of 30 to 6000C. Air was purged at the rate 50 ml/min.
X-ray diffraction:
X-ray scattering measurements on Rizatriptan benzoate was carried out at a voltage of 40 kV and current of 25 mA using Cr as a tube anode material. The solid were exposed to Cu –K radiation angles from 10°- 70°.63
Evaluation of taste of Rizatriptan benzoate and its taste modified forms by panel method
Healthy human volunteers of either sex in the age group of 20-30 yrs were selected. The procedure was carried out as follows.
Coding of drug and its taste modified forms was done using non-overlapping abbreviations.
About 5 ml dispersion of drug powder (equivalent to unit dose) in water was used.
Dispersion was held in oral cavity for 15 sec by the volunteers.
Content was split off from oral cavity by the volunteers into wash basin.
The oral cavity was rinsed with sufficiently large volume of purified water until the after taste of drug is completely ceased.
Same procedure was followed for all the taste modified form of Rizatriptan benzoate.
The volunteers were asked to rate both pure drug as well as the individual modified drug samples i.e. resinates in the scale of 0 to 4 as follows,
0 - No bitter taste
1 - Slightly bitter taste
2 - Moderately bitter taste
3 - Strong bitter taste
4 - Very strong bitter taste
The scores from each volunteer were compared carefully and the most suitable approach (ratio 0-1) was judged.12
Formulation of water dispersible tablets using most suitable approach of taste masking
The ingredients were weighed, mixed in geometrical order and compressed by 8 mm size punch to get a tablet of 200 mg weight using 12 station single rotary Rimak tablet compression machine.
Manufacturing procedure: For Trial No. 01 and 18
Dispense and weigh accurately all other ingredients as per batch formula and then mix well Rizatriptan Benzoate and Microcrystalline cellulose (PH101) sift through # mesh and other ingredients sift through # 40 mesh.
2) Transfer the step 2 material for blending into the mortar pestle.
3) Sift magnesium stearate through 60#.
4) Compressed the above blend obtained in with their respective punch (punch No.7)
Evaluation of taste masked water dispersible tablets
Appearance: Tablets were examined for texture, any surface flaws like cracks and chips.
Weight variation: The average weight was calculated and individual tablet weight was then compared with average value and the deviation was recorded.
Friability: For this, weight of 10 tablets of each formulation type was recorded and these tablets were then subjected to combined effects of abrasion and shocks in a plastic chamber that revolved at 25 rpm for 4 min (100 revolutions) to make the impact from a height of six inches with each revolution. Test was carried out for 100 revolutions
F% = (Wo – W) / Wo x 100
Where F = friability, Wo = initial weight of the ten tablets = final weight of the ten tablets
Disintegration time (in vitro):
For this, 3 tablets of each formulation were used and the disintegration test was conducted at following test conditions,
Apparatus : Disintegration test apparatus
Disintegration medium : Distilled water
Frequency of raising and lowering
of basket rack assembly : 28 to 32 cycles.
Temperature of medium : 37±2oC
Wetting Time: A piece of tissue paper folded twice was placed in a small petridish (internal diameter = 6.5cm) containing 10 ml of distilled water. A tablet was placed on the paper and the time for complete wetting of the tablet was measured.
Water absorption ratio: A piece of tissue paper folded twice was placed in a small petridish containing 6ml of distilled water. A tablet was put on the paper and time required for complete wetting was measured. The wetted tablet was then weighed. Water absorption ratio, R, was determined using equation:
R= 100 × (Wa-Wb) / Wb
Where, Wa = weight of the tablet before water absorption, Wb = weight of the tablet after water absorption
Uniformity of dispersion: For this, two tablets of each formulation were used. The tablets were dropped into100 ml of water contained in a beaker. The dispersion was stirred to allow complete disintegration of tablets and was then passed through a sieve (sieve no. 22, #710μm).
In-Vitro drug release from dispersible tablets
i) In-Vitro release of Rizatriptan benzoate in 0.1 M HCl
The dispersible tablets of Rizatriptan benzoate were dropped in dissolution medium. Aliquots of solutions were withdrawn at predetermined intervals and were replaced with same volume of dissolution medium at each withdrawal. The aliquots were filtered through whatman filter paper (No.41) and diluted appropriately before recording the absorbances at previously reported λmax value.
ii) In-vitro drug release in distilled water
For this, 2 tablets from each formulation were crushed. A quantity of powder equivalent to 100 mg of Rizatriptan benzoate as well as unmodified Rizatriptan benzoate was accurately weighed and transferred to 10 ml of distilled water in different test tubes. The suspensions were shaken for 60 seconds. Absorbances of filtrates were measured at previously reported λmax value.
Dimensions: Dimensions viz. diameter and thickness of the tablets were measured using digital vernier caliper.
Hardness: Tested using Monsanto hardness tester
Assay: A quantity of powder equivalent to 100 mg of Rizatriptan benzoate was accurately weighed and transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask to which small volume of 0.1 M HCl was added to disperse the contents. Final volume was adjusted to 100 ml using 0.1 M HCl. The dispersion was stirred for 2 hrs using magnetic stirrer and then was allowed to settle. Then the solution was filtered through Whatman filter paper (No.41). Appropriate dilution of filtrate was made using 0.1M HC and the UV absorbance was recorded.
Taste: Evaluation of taste of water dispersible Rizatriptan benzoate tablets by panel of tastes.
Stability testing of water dispersible tablets of taste masked Rizatriptan benzoate
For this, the dispersible tablets of Rizatriptan benzoate prepared using most suitable formulation for masking of bitter taste were selected and stored at the controlled environmental conditions (Temperature 40 ± 20 C and RH 75 ± 5 %) for 45 days. The tablets (in triplicate) were tested at the interval of every 15 days
Results
Characterization for probable interaction of drug and excipients
Characterization of Rizatriptan Benzoate
a)Organoleptic Characteristic :
UV spectroscopy
Modified drug powders equivalent to 10 mg of Rizatriptan benzoate were dissolved separately in 0.1 M HCl and the final volume was made up to 100 ml. The solutions were appropriately diluted and were scanned in the UV range of 200-400 nm to note the shift in λmax value. However, in case of modified powders of drug resin complex, dried gels prepared with PEG 6000, the acidic solutions were stirred for about 2 hr and the solutions were filtered and the filtrates were appropriately diluted before scanning in the UV range.
Discussion:
Organoleptic Characteristic:
The Organoleptic characteristic of drug were matching with those reported in the USP
Melting range: From the result it was observed that the melting range of Rizatriptan benzoate has good agreement with those reported in the USP
Saturation Solubility: From the result of saturation solubility it was observed that Rizatriptan benzoate was more soluble in 0.1M HCl in water.
Loss on drying: From the result it was observed that LOD was within specified limit
Spectrum analysis of Rizatriptan benzoate:
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1274http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1274
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241912EnglishN2017June24TechnologyComparison of Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) and Stationary Wavelet Transform (SWT) based Satellite Image Fusion Techniques
English4953Ch Ramesh BabuEnglish D. Srinivasa RaoEnglishThe aim of the image fusion is to combining evidence from different images; Multispectral (MS) and Panchromatic (PAN) images acquired from different sensors of the same interpretation in directive to convey enhancedspectral and spatial information as well. In this paper discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and two specializations of discrete cosine transform (DCT); i)DCT varianc,ii) consistency verification with DCT variance fusion techniques are implemented and compared with the proposed methodology for image fusion named stationary wavelet transform (SWT). Fused results obtained from these fusion approaches are assessed through typical evaluation parameters. Fused outcomes obtained from proposed SWT outperforms DWT and two flavors of DCT based fusion approaches. The shift invariant property of SWT produces improved spectral and spatial evidence in the fused image followed by fused grades accomplished from DCT based fusion approaches. The discrete cosine transforms (DCT) grounded approaches of image fusion are further proper and performance oriented in real time applicationsby means of DCT founded principles of static images. Conclusion through this work is a glowing systematic practice for fusion of multi-focus images based on SWT is presented and proved that SWT based fused results surpass other fusion approaches.
EnglishDWT, DCT, SWT, Variance, Consistency verification
INTRODUCTION
Multisensor image fusion is the method of conjoining significant evidence from two or more images addicted to a one image.The resultant image determined as an additional useful information than at all of the participated images.In remote sensing solicitations,the accumulative obtainability of planetary accepted sensors provides a inspiration for various image fusion procedures. Numerousconditions in image processing need great spatial and extraordinary spectral information in a particular image. Furthermost of the obtainableutensils is not proficient of producing such informationinfluentially. Image fusion methods permit the combination of alteredevidencefoundations. The output image from fusion may obligate harmonizing dimensional and supernatural information features. However, the average image fusion procedures can change the spectral evidence of the multispectral data while combining input images through fusion process.
[1] grants two elementary fusion areas, explicitly spatial domain and transform domain. Principal component analysis (PCA) which is dimensional province technique and discrete cosine transform (DCT), discrete wavelet transform (DWT), stationary wavelet transform (SWT), non-sub sampled contourlet transform (NSCT), and complex contourlet transform (CCT) which are transform domain procedures. Enactmentmeasures are executed to assess and authenticate the enactment of image fusion procedure. Investigationaloutcomesdirect that the image fusion techniquefounded on complex contourlet transform (CCT) is improved than formerapproaches.
[2] benevolences two methodologies for the image fusion, viz. spatial fusion and renovate fusion and nearby are practices for instance principal component analysis (PCA) which is dimensionl province and discrete wavelet transform (DWT), stationary wavelet transform (SWT) and discrete cosine transform (DCT) which are transmute domain procedures. Contrast among PCA, DWT, DCT with SWT is done.along with parameter like, spatial frequency (SF), standard derivation (SD), PSNR, NCC, etc.
[3] described proceduresfor image fusion using stationary wavelet transform (SWT) with the assistance of intuitionistic fuzzy set (IFS) processes. In IFS, fewer number of factors is actuallysuitable for computing membership importance. On the supplementary, SWT has shift invariance capabilityabove the DWT. Deliberated SWT founded image fusion procedures with numerous IFS processes for dissimilar data set and related the outcomes with separately.
[4]Numerousconventional multi-focus image fusion procedures and some unusual multi-focus image fusion proceduresarediscussed and recommended the R-FCM (Rough-Fuzzy C-Means)method to improve the multi-focus image fusion approach in dynamic scene.
[5]projected non subsampled contourlet transform based image fusion of multi-sensor satellite images. In the planned effort, interchange among the spectral bias and improvement of spatial evidence is observed while fusing input images. The harms of wavelet grounded fusion procedures for instance partial directivity, deficiency of phase evidence and shiftinvariant are spoken with the assistance of Non subsampled contourlet transform. The Non subsampled contourlet benefits to recollect the inherent organizational evidence although disintegrating and reforming the image constituents. Result grounded instructions are used for constituent replacement for image fusion. The investigations are conceded out in contradiction of the existing state of art and perceived that the projected scheme delivers auspicious outcomes pictorial and measureable. The proficiency of the projected scheme in the fused result is examined qualitatively by Isodata cataloging system.
[6]Satellite images are actuality castoff in numerous domains of exploration completed the ages. Unique of the foremost restrictions of near by these images is their determination. Thus, image determinationimprovement is the primaryessentialstage in image processing. Image determinationimprovement is the method of transforming the images under deliberation so that gainedoutput image is additionallyproper than the input image for essentialsolicitation. Image determination is imperativecharacteristic of any image. Improvedeminence image i.e. high-determination image productsimprovedoutcomes in image processing solicitation. Determinationimprovement can be done in numerousfields such as spatial and transform domains. Dissimilar transform domain approaches that are utilised for image determination improvement are viz., Discrete Wavelet transform (DWT), Stationary Wavelet Transform (SWT), Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), Dual-Tree Complex Wavelet Transform (DT-CWT) etc. Beyond these, DT-CWT is initiate to be one of the maximumoperativeapproaches and also examined variousmethodsgrounded on exclamation for image determinationimprovement. The conversation and discrimination of various transform domain approaches for image determinationimprovement is conceded out on satellite standard images and investigational outcomes presenting the sovereigntyamongst these approaches for image resolution improvement is offered.
DWT BASED IMAGE FUSION
The input images aredisintegrated into rows and columns by low-pass (L) and high-pass (H) sifting andsubsequent dejected sample at particular level to obtainan approximation (LL) and aspect (LH, HL and HH)quantities. Topping purpose is connected with smooth filters or low pass filters and wavelet function with high-pass filtering. Wavelet reconditions mark accessible an structure where an image is fragmented, through individual level following to a simpler purpose band[7].
The phases complicated in the image fusion determined from wavelet transform based image fusion are given below.
Acquire source images to perform fusion.
Relate the wavelet transform on source images doneselected wavelet at the anticipated level.
Acquire the estimation and aspectquantities for input images.
Combine quantities by anticipated image fusion instruction.
Relate Inverse discrete wavelet transform on the compoundquantities and obtain the final fused image.
DCT VARIANCE BASED IMAGE FUSION
Discrete cosine transform (DCT) is an significant transform broadly utilized in digital image processing [8]. Outsized DCT quantities are focused in the low frequency section; hereafter, it is recognized to have outstanding liveliness firmnesspossessions.
Steps involved in DCT based image fusion
Acquire source images to to be fused.
Perform level shifting and divide input images into 8*8 blocks and accomplish the image fusion.
Compute the 2-D DCT of 8*8 blocks and calculate normalized transform coefficients.
Calculate Mean value of 8*8 block of images and Variance of 8*8 block of images.
Calculate the 2-D inverse DCT of 8*8 blocks and build output fused image[9].
CONSISTENCY VERIFICATION WITH DCT VARIANCE BASED IMAGE FUSION
Acommon filter that can be employed in consistency verification. If the center block derives from input imageBwhile the mainstream of the neighboring blocks originate from input imageA, the center model is modestlytransferred to theconforming block in input imageA. The output fused image is lastlyattainedgrounded on the reformed decision map.
In addition to steps complicated in DCT variance based image fusion the following steps are also involved.
Compute consistency verification by means of a Mainstream Filter.
Calculate consistency verification along with variance in DCT domain.
Perform inverse level shifting to obtain final output image [9].
PROPOSED RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR SWT BASED IMAGE FUSION
The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is absence of translation variant possession which can be abolished by expending stationary wavelet transform (SWT) is proposed. In SWT, though the signal is moved, the converted quantity will not alter and also achieves improved in denoising and edge identification. In distinction to DWT, SWT can be utilized to any subjectivedimension of images rather than dimension of power of two.
Poposed SWT based methodology for image fusion is as follows
Acquire source images to be fused.
Image decomposition using discrete stationary wavelet transform.
Apply fusion rule to perform image fusion.
Utilize inverse SWT to obtain output fused image.
IMAGE DATA CHARACTERISTICS AND STRUCTURE OF PROPOSED METHOD
NRSA, Hyderabad, INDIA used IRS-1D, LISS III sensors in order to obtain images in the multispectral mode. The features of IRS 1D LISS III (image data features) are précised in Table.1
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS COMPILATION AND DISCUSSIONS
IRS 1D satellite and LISS-III sensor images accomplished from NRSA Hyderabad, India are compiled as input images for image fusion to obtainmore informative fused images. Fused images attained from different fusion methods, DWT, DCT variance, consistency verification with DCT variance and SWT are compared.Fused otcomes are evaluated by entropy, image quality index(IQI), spatial frequency (SF), peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR), standard deviation (SD), mutual information measure (MIM) between fused image and panchromatic, fused image and multi spectral image.
SWT based fused image gives higher values for entropy, IQI and SD values for the Dataset 1 states that information levels, quality evidence and contrast are high for the SWT based fused image compared to DWT and DCT based fused images.
SWT based fused image having better values for entropy, IQI, SF, MIM and SD in
Dataset 4 illustrates that SWT overcomes the drawbacks of other wavelet transform
domains like DWT and DCT.
Potentiality of the SWT produces better values for entropy, IQI, PSNR, MIM and SD designates that SWT performs better fusion compared to other techniques discussed.
As SWT will not destroy constants at each transformation level SWT based fused image having higher values for entropy, IQI,PSNR, MIM and SD indicates that SWT fusion outperforms DWT and DCT based fusion techniques.
The overall results and discussions have proved that proposed SWT based fusion techniques hav met the objectives of image fusion by improving spectral and spatial information as well
CONCLUSIONS
Image fusion is a technique to converge MS and PAN images or many input images attained through different instruments into a one fused image incorporateshigh spectral and spatial validation. Fused images required in plenteousapplicationsviz image exploration, image indulgent, computer conception, cataloging, image appreciation, remote sensing, medical imaging, biometrics, video supervision. DWT, DCT and SWTimage fusion approaches are implemented here. Fused results are evaluated through varous assessment parameters. Because of the basic property and potentiality of the SWT based fused results outperforms DWT and DCT based fused approaches. After SWT fused results DCT variance and CV with DCT variance based fused results improved fused image content.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
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